Comparison between KFC (uk) and Nando's chickenland Ltd huddersfield Essay

Comparison between KFC (uk) and Nando's chickenland Ltd huddersfield - Essay Example is the highest in the hierarchy and it is very important for a company to be consistent with its strategies so that it can have competitive advantage in the market. Competitive advantage in a company grows when the company is able to provide its clients with quality products and services at the appropriate time and place. Nandos chicken land has used information technology for them to grow at the intended time and send new products and services. The supply system in Nandos chicken land has used information technology in maintaining competitive advantage. A product has competitive value when it provides more value to the users than a competitive product or services. This value can be in symbolic terms of attributor or both. In the past century, Nandos chicken land has been using information technology for operational and management of the company. It is until recently that the company is using information technology to get significant competitive advantage (Khosrowpour, 2002, p. 15). For instance, it was the first to establish online order entry in restaurants and now they dominate the hotel delivering business. Nandos chicken land has set up ways to make reservations through a computer application, which has made it impossible for other companies to overcome them. The importance of products and services offered through the computer by Nando’s chicken land system does not lie on how the information technology is sophisticated or the reports it delivers. But, they are established by examining how they play in the company’s need for competitive advantage (Khosrowpour, 2002, p. 35). These are known as strategic information systems that help in shaping and supporting the competitive advantage of the restaurant. They are plans that help in gaining and maintaining the competitive advantage. KFC (UK) uses commercial advertisement in advertising their products. The commercial advertisement features a live band where the singer swallows fire. The company has a logo

Behavioural Approach Essay Example for Free

Behavioural Approach Essay The behavioural approach suggests that all behaviour is learnt. This includes abnormal behaviours. Behaviours can be learned through classical conditioning, operant conditioning or modelling. Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning, where learning results from the association of stimuli with reflex responses. Classical conditioning can be used to explain the development of many abnormal behaviours, including phobias, anxiety disorders and taste aversions. An example of how classical conditioning might result in a phobia is the case of Little Albert. In an experiment carried out by Watson and Rayner, a 11 month old boy called ‘little Albert’ was taught to fear a white rat through associating it with a loud noise, a symbol behind his head. Each time he played with the rat the symbol would be hit which caused him to cry. Eventually he would do so even without the noise due to the classical conditioning theory. This research however, would not receive approval from an ethics committee today because it would be seen as unethical. Making the baby cry deliberately and teaching him to fear the rat would be seen as wrong because it could cause distress and would go against ‘little Alberts’ human rights. The theory of operant conditioning was proposed by Skinner. Operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of actions. Actions which have a good outcome through positive reinforcement (reward) or negative reinforcement (removal of something bad) will be repeated. Actions which have a bad outcome (punishment) will not be repeated. Operant conditioning explains how abnormal behaviours might be maintained. This could be through positive reinforcement; behaviours which have a good outcome by bringing some sort of reward are said to be positively reinforced. On the other hand it could be down to negative reinforcement which is behaviours which have a good outcome by removing something unpleasant are said to be negatively reinforced. Finally, abnormal behaviours could also be learnt through modelling or social learning, which is learning through observation of an individual. What happens is simply an individual models the behaviour and the observer imitates the model. A strength of the behavioural approach is that it can be experimentally tested. The principles of learning have been and continue to be tested empirically in a laboratory. The focus on observable behaviour means it can be objectively measured. A further strength is that unlike the psychodynamic approach, it doesn’t require delving into the past, which is problematic because it could unearth traumatic experiences which can produce unreliable data. However, those who support the psychodynamic approach suggests the behavioural model only focuses on symptoms, not on the underlying causes of abnormal behaviour. Freudians claim it treats the symptoms while ignoring the root cause of the problem. Therefore it cannot work as the problem will just represent itself with different symptoms. Whereas, the biological approach cannot explain cultural differences in abnormality such as culture-bound syndromes, a strength of the behavioural approach is that it can account for this because It accounts for cultural differences because it recognises the importance of the environment in shaping behaviour. While behavioural treatments are often effective for certain disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and phobias, they have not been found to be effective for many other disorders and have also often been criticised for being unethical because treatment is often painful and uncomfortable and is sometimes imposed on individuals without their consent. The behavioural approach is accused of being reductionist and simplistic. This is because it’s a simple approach with connections of stimulus. It neglects the influence of cognitions (The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought and experience). A further limitation is that much behaviourist research involves animal studies. While behaviourists argue that humans are fundamentally the same as non-human animals, others would argue that the greater complexity of the human mind makes it difficult to generalise findings from animal studies to humans. Overall the behaviourist approach shows all behaviour to be learnt through our experiences. It states that this learning can either be learnt through classical or operant condition and also the social learning theory. It can be experimentally tested and proven which makes the approach credible however it can be seen just to treat the symptoms of a abnormal behaviour rather than looking at the cause.

Essay --

Some theorists, like Lakoff, that both genders are innately different when it comes to communication and therefore both genders are treated differently (Lakoff 1975: 50). Foels, Driskell, Mullen, and Salas believe that both genders do not communicate differently in the least and instead communication techniques vary according to the situation or context in which a person interacts (Foels, Driskell, Mullen, Salas 200: 676-677). Some, like Tannen and Wood, even believe that the main distinction between male and female talk is not that both genders communicate differently; it is that males and females simply misunderstand each other (Tannen 1990: 363,368; Wood 2009: 7-8, 25). Arguments from theorists Cameron, Coates, Ostermann, West et al, and Harvey will also be explored when analyzing the gender distinctions evident in communication. Recognizing particular cues that concern a certain situation can be taught and may not be gender-dependent. There do seem to be appropriate ways to comm unicate based on what one is attempting to achieve in conversation – having nothing to do with gender. Examples in the transcription of the conversation of four females I observed show that females tend to speak in higher pitches. But other theories may suggest that women are merely socialized to communicate in this way – based upon culture, environment, context, etc. Robin Lakoff suggests that women tend to use â€Å"tag questions,† which illustrate an uncertain and weaker picture of questioning compared to that of an authoritative and aggressive male form of questioning in communication (Lakoff 1975: 54-58). Lakoff also suggests that women use hedges and imperatives more often when communicating. For example, questions like â€Å"It is sort of cold (hedge). Wh... ...lities in dating and comparing the study’s findings with the transcription will add value to what the study determines is â€Å"girl talk.† Like the study suggests, and what society generalizes as well, female communication differs systematically in many ways from that of male communication. I also want to analyze other ways of communicating more effectively, ignoring the notion of gendered talk and what implications that may have – what happens when a male or female steps out of their schema and maybe communicates opposite of what is expected of him or her. My transcription contains cross-cultural communication as well, which may suggest other preconceived notions on female communication. Exploring female communication from other cultures and comparing it to our cultured communication may also suggest that communication differences are only situational or contextual.

Computer Hacking and Cyber Crime Law Essay

COMPUTER HACKING AND CYBER CRIME LAW History of Hacking According to (Clifford R.D. 2006) a cracker or cracking is to â€Å"gain unauthorized access to a computer in order to commit another crime such as destroying information contained in that system†. These subgroups may also be defined by the legal status of their activities. Eric S. Raymond (author of The New Hacker’s Dictionary) advocates that members of the computer underground should be called crackers. Yet, those people see themselves as hackers and even try to include the views of Raymond in what they see as one wider hacker culture, a view harshly rejected by Raymond himself. Instead of a hacker/cracker dichotomy, they give more emphasis to a spectrum of different categories, such as white hat, grey hat, black hat and script kiddie. World Of Hacking Hacking is the practice of modifying the features of a system, in order to accomplish a goal outside of the creator’s original purpose. The person who is consistently engaging in hacking activities, and has accepted hacking as a lifestyle and philosophy of their choice, is called a hacker. Modifying the features of a system. Gaining an unauthorized access to a computer system. Breaks into a system security. Refers to the hobby/profession of working with computers. It also about learning how a system works and how to make it do things it wasn’t designed to do, or you haven’t got the privileges to do. Hacker A hacker is someone who seeks and exploits weaknesses in a computer system or computer network. Hackers may be motivated by a multitude of reasons, such as profit, protest, or challenge. The subculture that has evolved around hackers is often referred to as the computer underground and is now a known community. White Hats – good Gray hats – good or bad Black hats – bad Script kiddie A script kiddie (also known as a skid or skiddie) is a non-expert who breaks  into computer systems by using pre-packaged automated tools written by others, usually with little understanding of the underlying concept—hence the term script (i.e. a prearranged plan or set of activities) kiddie (i.e. kid, child—an individual lacking knowledge and experience, immature). Blue hat A blue hat hacker is someone outside computer security consulting firms who is used to bug test a system prior to its launch, looking for exploits so they can be closed. Microsoft also uses the term Blue Hat to represent a series of security briefing events. Hacker Code Of Ethics Levy (1984) suggests that there is a â€Å"code of ethics† for hacking which, though not pasted on the walls, is in the air: Access to Computers – and anything which might teach you something about the way the world works – should be unlimited and total. Always yield to the Hands-On Imperative! All information should be free. Mistrust Authority – Promote Decentralization. Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race, or position. You can create art and beauty on a computer. Computers can change your life for the better. CYBER CRIME LAW Senator Angara is defined as any illegal and criminal act activity committed on the internet. State Policy Regarding Cyber Crimes The State Recognize.. 1. The vital role of information and communication industries such as content production, telecommunication, broadcasting, electronic commerce, and data processing, in the nation’s overall social and economic development. 2. The importance of providing an environment conducive to the development, acceleration, and rational application and exploitation of information and communication technology to attain free, easy and intelligible access to exchange and/or delivery of information. 3. The need to protect and safeguard the integrity of computer, computer and communication systems, network, and databases and the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information and data stored therein, from all forms of misuse, abuse, and  illegal access by making punishable under the law such conduct or conducts. Cyber Crimes Offenses 1. Offenses against the confidentiality, integrity and availability of computer data and systems. A. Illegal Access – The intentional access to the whole or any part of a computer system without right. Element of Computer System There must be a device a group of interconnected or related devices. At least one of the devices performs automatic processing of data pursuant to a program. The device need NOT be connected in a network as long as it consists of both hardware and software and have input, output and storage facilities. Element of the offense of illegal Access 1.There must be an intentional access in whole or any part of a computer system. 2. The person who attempts, or is accessing, or had already access the data has no right to access to the system. â€Å"An Authorized person may not be authorized.† B. Illegal Interception Interception – refers to the listening to, recording, monitoring or surveillance of the content of communication. Elements of Illegal Interception 1. It must be intentional. 2. It must be by technical means. 3. The person involved is without any right to do the intercept. 4. The transmission of computer data to, from, or within a computer system is non-public. 5. It must not fall in any exemption. C. Data Interference Intentional or reckless alteration of computer data without right. C.System Interference Intentional or reckless hindering without the right of the functioning of a computer system by inputting, transmitting, deleting or altering computer data or program. MisUse of Devices The use, production, sale, procurement, importation, distribution, or otherwise making available, without right, of: – device, including a  computer program, designed or adapted primarily for the purpose of committing any of then offenses under this act; Or -a computer password, access code, or similar data by which the whole or any part of a computer system is capable of being accessed with intent that it be used for the purpose of committing any of the offenses under this Act; CYBERSEX AND CHILD PORNOGRAPHY CYBERSEX -Any person who establishes, maintains or controls, directly or indirectly any operation for sexual activity or arousal with the aid of or through the use of a computer system, for a favor or consideration. Child Pornography -refers to pornography depicting sexually explicit activities involving a child. It may use a variety of media, including writings, magazines, photos, sculpture, drawing, cartoon, painting, animation, sound recording, film video, and video games. Child pornography is divided into simulated child pornography and pornography which was produced with direct involvement of the child (also known as Child Abuse Images.) For a person to be guilty of cybersex as defined by the cybercrime law, all the following elements must be present: There must be an operation for sexual activity or arousal; The sexual activity or arousal is done with the aid of or through the use of a computer system; The activity is done for a favor or consideration. The operation is/ was established, maintained or controlled by a person directly or indirectly. From the above, element no.3 should NOT have been included by our law makers. What is the Penalty for this Crime? Any person found guilty of the cybercrime of cybersex shall be punished with imprisonment of prison mayor or a fine at least Two Hundred Thousand Pesos ( Php 200,000.00) But not exceeding One Million Pesos (1,000,000.00) or both. Sec. 5 Other Offenses: The following acts shall also constitute an offense: 1. Aiding or abetting in the Commission of Cybercrime– Any person who willfully abets or aids in the commission of any of the offenses enumerated in this Act shall be held liable. 2. Attempt in the Commission of Cybercrime– A prosecution who willfully attempts to commit any offenses enumerated in this Act shall be held liable. Sec. 6 Liability under other Laws A prosecution under this Act shall be w/o prejudice to any liability for violation Of the Revised Penal Code, as amended or special laws COMPUTER-RELATED OFFENSES: Computer-related forgery Computer-related Fraud Unsolicited Commercial Communications 1.) Computer-related Forgery -(a) the intentional input, alteration, or deletion of any computer data w/o right resulting in inauthentic data w/ the intent that it be considered or acted upon for legal purposes as if it were authentic, regardless, whether or not the data is directly readable and intelligible; (b) the act of knowingly using computer data which is the product of computer-related forgery as defined herein, for the purpose of perpetuating a fraudulent or dishonest design. 2.) A pe rson is guilty of forgery if: (a)With purpose to defraud or injure anyone; OR (b) With knowledge that he is facilitating a fraud or injury to be perpetrated by anyone; the actor: 1.) alters any writings of another without his authority; 2.) makes, completes, executes, authenticates, issues or transfers any writing so that it purports to be the act of another who did not authorize the act, or to have been executed at a time or place or in a numbered sequence other than was in fact the case, or to be a copy of an original when no such original existed; or 3.) utters any writing which he knows to be forged in a manner specified in the revised penal code. Elements of Computer related Forgery. First type of Offense â€Å"ACTIVE COMPUTER RELATED FORGERY† (a) There must be an intentional input, alteration, or deletion of any computer data without right; (b) The result is an inauthentic data; (c) The intent is to use the inauthentic data to be considered or acted upon as if it is authentic Second type of Offense â€Å"PASSIVE COMPUTER RELATED FORGERY a) There must be an existing inauthentic data brought about by the elements of ACTIVE computer-related forgery. b) Knowingly acting on the inauthentic data for the purpose of perpetuating a fraudulent or dishonest design. 2.) Computer Related Fraud If A had a loan from his cooperative and the only evidence of such loan is the records stored in the cooperative’s computer system, A with intent to procure economic benefit, changed the source code of the system’s program so that on an particular date, the system will hang and immediately cause the malfunctioning of the said system. Thus, A can easily deny that he still has an obligation to the cooperative. 3.) Unsolicited Commercial Communications -The transmission of commercial electronic communication with the use of a computer system which seek to advertise, sell, or offer for sale products and services are prohibited unless a. There is a prior affirmative consent from the recipient; or b. The following conditions are present: i. The commercial electronic communication contains a simple, valid, and reliable way for the recipient to reject receipt of further commercial electronic messages (‘opt-out’) from the same source; ii. The commercial electronic communication does not purposely disguise the source of the electronic message; and iii. The commercial electronic communication does not purposely include misleading information in any part of the message in order to induce in the recipients to read the message. BLOG Blog can also be used as a verb, meaning to maintain or add content WHAT IS BLOGGING ? – A new form of expression where in you express your thoughts and ideas about a specific topic . BLOGGERS : Tina Hamilton is a veteran journalist , a social media guru and a aspiring blogger who enjoys covering a wide range of topics. She currently works with a professional SEO consultant in her attempt to gain an education in the industry John Charles Edward â€Å"Carlos† Pamintuan Celdran also known as CARLOS CELDRAN† He is truly proud of being a Filipino as his blog Celdrantours tries to change how the world sees Manila. Through his blogs. INTRODUCTION With the emergence and popularity of blogging as a new form of expression, the coverage of defamation laws has extended to cyberspace. The consequences is that, people who are adversely affected by writings in this medium is bringing lawsuits to protect their name and reputation. While the Philippine Constitution protects bloggers’ right to free speech and expression, this does not give them unfettered license to write to the detriment of others. This Chapter discusses the person’s right to free speech and expression while respecting the person’s honor. This chapter aims to equip the reader relevant knowledge to supplement his skills in determining whether or not a certain form of expression is within the scope guaranteed by the Constitution. Bases of the Guaranteed of the Right of Freedom of Expression Two (2) Philosophical Bases for the Guarantee of this Right Discovery of truth For self-government In the case of US vs. Bustos (37 Phil. 731), in which the defendants were charged with libel of a public officials for statements made Mr. Justice Malcolm, writing the opinion of the Court, said: â€Å"Public policy, the welfare of society, and the orderly administration of government, have demanded protection for public opinion. The inevitable and incontestable result has been the development and adaptation of the doctrine of privilege.† `â€Å"A public official must NOT be too thin-skinned with reference to comment upon his official acts.† Scope of the Freedom of Expression Article III, Section 4 of the Phil. Constitution says: â€Å"No law shall be passed abridging the freedom speech, of expression, or the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the Government for redress of grievances.† Article III, Section 18(1) of the Phil. Constitution says: â€Å"No person shall be detained solely by reason of his political beliefs and aspirations.† Question: But how can we determine the scope of this expression? According to Justice Isagani Cruz, an authority in Constitutional law, the ideas that may be expressed under this freedom are NOT confined only to those that are sympathetic or acceptable to the majority. To be really meaningful, it should permit the articulation of even the unorthodox view, though it be unfriendly to or mocked by others, or â€Å"induces a condition of unrest, creates dissatisfaction with conditions as they are, or even stirs people to anger.† Justice Holmes said that this right exists NOT so much for the thought that AGREES with us as for the thought that we detest. From this comes the famous statement from Voltaire: Voltaire â€Å"I may NOT agree with what you say, but I will defend to the dead your right to say it†. Freedom from prior restraint or censorship Prior means official governmental restrictions on the press or other forms of expression in advance of actual publication or dissemination. Freedom from subsequent punishment The freedom from prior restraint would set at naught if the citizen would hesitate to speak for fear of vengeance that he might suffer against the officials he criticized. Limitations on the Guarantee Case: Tulfo wrote an article in his column in PDI ‘On Target’ on October 13, 1989, stating that the Supreme Court rendered an idiotic decision in legalizing checkpoints, and again on October 16, 1989, where he called the SC stupid and â€Å"sangkatutak na mga bobo justices of the Philippine Supreme Court†. There are 2 kinds of publications which can be punished for contempt: 1.Those whose object is to affect the decision in a pending case 2.Whose object is to bring courts to discredit Standards for allowable subsequent punishment TEST CRITERION 1.Dangerous Tendency Test There should be a RATIONAL CONNECTION between the speech and the evil apprehend 2.Clear and Present Danger Test There should be a clear and present danger that the words when used under such circumstances are of such a nature as to create a CLEAR AND PRESENT DANGER that they will bring about the substantive evils that the State has a right to prevent 3.Balancing of Interest Test The courts should BALANCE the PUBLIC INTEREST served by legislation on one hand and the FREEDOM OF SPEECH (or any other constitutional right) on the other. The courts will then decide where the greater weight should be placed LIBEL A legal term for something written which is harmful to a persons reputation. – is a defamation committed by means of writing, printing, lithography, engraving, radio, phonography, painting, theatrical exhibition, cinematographic exhibition, or any similar means. Libel is punished by our Revised Penal Code which states: Art. 353. Definition of Libel. – A libel is public and malicious imputation of a crime, or of a vice or defect, real or imaginary, or any act, omission, condition, status, or circumstance tending to cause the dishonor, discredit, or contempt of a natural or juridical person, or to blacken the memory of one who is dead. Art. 354. Requirement for Publicity. – Every defamatory imputation is presumed to be malicious, even if it be true, if no good intention and justifiable motive for making it is shown, except in the following cases: 1.A private communication made by any person to another in the performance of any legal, moral or social duty; and 2.A fair and true report, made in good faith, without any comments or remarks, of any judicial, legislative or other official proceedings which are not of confidential nature, or any of statement, report or speech delivered in said proceedings, or of any other act performed by public officers in the exercise of their functions Art. 355. Libel means by writings or similar means. – A libel committed by means of writing, printing, lithography, engraving, radio, phonography, painting, theatrical exhibitions, cinematographic exhibition, or any similar means, shall be punished by prison correctional in its minimum and medium periods or a fine ranging from 200 to 6,000, or both, in addition to the civil action which may be brought by the offended party. DefamationElements of Defamation For a person to be convicted of defamation, the following elements should be present. 1. There must be an imputation of a crime, or of a vice or defect, real or imaginary, or any act, omission, condition, status, or circumstance. 2. The imputation must be made publicly. 3. It must be malicious. 4. The imputation must be directed at a natural or juridical person, or one who is dead. 5. The imputation must tend to cause the dishonor, discredit, or contempt of the person defamed. Absolute Privileged Communication To illustrate, let us recall the privileged speech delivered by Sen. Revilla in the Senate last 2009, in that instance, he called Dr. Hayden Kho â€Å"Maniac†. Buwang itong doctor na ito. Baliw, Mr. President,† he further said. Qualified or Conditionally Privileged Communications Under this privilege, the freedom of the liability for an otherwise defamatory utterance is conditioned on the absence of express malice or malice in fact. Thus, in re:Tulfo (supra), notwithstanding the freedom of the press guarantee of the Constitution, the respondent was severely censured because there is malice brought about by a disrespectful language. A good example which will illustrate the absence of malice in rendering fair and true report is the case of GMA Network vs Bustos (G.R. No. 146848 October 17,2006). Interpreting The Libelous Statement The alleged libelous article must be construed as a whole (Jimenez vs. Reyes, 27 Phil.52) The Meaning given by the writer nor by the offended person is Immaterial. If the libelous statement shall be interpreted by the writer, then the writer can easily escapes by giving an interpretation to the effect that malice is not present. On the other hand. If the offender person is the one who will interpret the libelous article, he can easily imputes malice against the writer to hold him liable. Meaning of Publication Publications does not mean that the defamatory statement should be published in the newspaper of general circulation, televised in national television, neither by refereed ISI Journal, etc. There is publication when the communication of the defamatory matter is made to some third person or persons( People vs Atencio, Dec 14,1954) Thus, If Juan sent a letter to Pedro which reads: â€Å"Pablo is a thief†, this is sufficient publication. ‘ Identification of the Party is Required in the 4thElement A blind item writer cannot be guilty of libel , as long as the person defamed cannot be identified. Thus, if the blind item states: â€Å"The wife of the pound for pound king†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Although the name is not expressly mentioned, the person can be easily identified, so the writer may be liable. General Rule: Every defamatory imputation is presumed to be malicious, even if it be true, if no good intention and justifiable motive for making it is shown, Exception: Except in the following cases: {This is the exemption to the general rule; here malice is NOT presumed} A Private communication made by any person to another in the performance of any legal, moral, or social duty; and A fair and true report, made in good faith, without any comments or remarks, of any judicial, legislative or other official proceedings which are not of confidential nature, or of any statement, report or speech delivered in said proceedings, or of any other act performed by public officers in the exercise of their functions. Going back to our previous example, if Juan sent a letter to Pedro which reads: â€Å"Pablo is a Thief† , it is presumed that that there is MALICE on the part of Juan. It means that the law presumes that Juan is prompted by personal ill-will in making the communication to Pedro. Now, suppose Pablo really is a thief, will the law still presumed malice on the part of Juan? Yes, unless Juan has good intention and justifiable motive in making communication. Thus, If Pedro is looking for a cashier in his department store Juan will be justified in making the communication so that Pedro won’t hire Pablo who applied for the cashier position. The same holds true if the message was sent through an e-mail and/or text messages. Relevance of Knowing the Presumption of Law If the case falls under the general rule, that is, malice is presumed, it is the writer or the accused who has the burden of proof. Hence, the complainant will NOT be obliged to prove that there is a malice on the part of the accused. The accused will have to produce evidence that his claim against the complainant is true. Do not be confused, the accused is the writer that is why he is being accused of libel because he is the one who wrote the libellous statement. The complainant is the offended party, that is, the person defamed that is why he is the one complaining. If the case falls under the exemption, it is the complainant who has the burden of proof like in the case of GMA Network vs Bustos, wherein Bustos, the complainant failed to prove that there is bad faith or malice on the part of GMA in showing the alleged malicious report. Libel in the Internet After reading the necessary materials pertaining to an individual’s right to freedom of expression and the libel law, we are now ready to study its application using the internet as its medium. Let us start our study with the following scenario. Libel in the internet or e-libel is within the Scope  of Libel Defined in the Revised Penal code The case of Bonifacio vs Jimenez (supra), unfortunately, was misinterpreted by some because they cite this case to support their opinion that e-libel is beyond the ambit of libel provided by the Revised Penal Code. According to them since the SC had dismissed the case, it is already settled that e-libel cannot be punished in our jurisdiction. I beg to disagree. If you will read the full text of the case of bonifacio vs Jimenez, it is very clear that Jimenez did not win the case because of the wrong choice of option. If Jimenez simply alleged in the information that they are (or at least one of the offended parties) presently residing in the City of Makati at the time of the commission of the offense, that is enough to vest jurisdiction to the RTC-Makati and enable the letter to hear and decide the case on the merits. The case was dismissed because RTC-Makati failed to acquire jurisdiction of the case NOT because there is no e-libel in our country. Another argument is that, â€Å"at the time the revised penal code was enacted, there is no internet yet, hence, the legislature could NOT have intended to include internet as a medium. To address this argument let us reproduce the pertinent provision of the libel law regard to this, thus: Art.335.Libel means by writings or similar means. *A libel committed by means of writing, printing, lithography, engraving, radio, phonagraphy, painting, theatrical exhibit, cinematographic exhibition, or any similar means (big emphasis supplied).

Working for a Large Company

The number of people in the US who are quitting their corporate jobs to start their own businesses is growing. One recent best-selling book entitled Fire your Boss! seems to reflect the growing discontent with company life. Why are so many people going into their own businesses? One of the most frustrating things about corporate life is the bureaucracy. This is the administrative system of paperwork and red tape that keeps track of everything in the corporation.Any decision must be agreed upon by many people in different departments and levels of the company. This can be very frustrating for individual employees who want to have control over their own work. They can become exasperated when their good ideas get tied up for months in the bureaucratic machinery. Employees often long the freedom of being their own boss. Another depressing aspect of working for a corporation is the lack of job security.Contrary to business owners, employees in a large company can be fired at any time, for almost no reason. If there is a downturn in the economy, layoffs are likely to come. Even if a worker has done his best to serve the corporations, he could find himself fired without warning or explanation. When a person works for himself, however, he cannot be fired. The traditionally attractive fringe benefits of a corporate position have been decreasing in recent years as well.There was a time when landing a job at a top corporation meant the employee was assured of a good retirement. More and more these days, however, pension benefits are being cut to lower payroll costs. Workers are being forced to worry more about their own retirement plans. In the same vein, health care is another benefit that has started to evaporate. Health insurance premiums are rising, while covered medical conditions are shrinking. This means employees are paying more out-of-pocket expenses than before and getting less care in return.

Habits and Traits of Box Elder Bugs

Habits and Traits of Box Elder Bugs Box elder bugs go relatively unnoticed most of the year. In fall, however, these true bugs have an annoying tendency to aggregate on peoples homes. As temperatures drop, box elder bugs make their way inside houses and other structures, seeking warmth. Then they get noticed, as worried homeowners try to battle the bug invaders. Should you find box elder bugs in your house, dont panic. Theyre completely harmless to people and property. All About Box Elder Bugs Adult box elder bugs measure about 1/2 inch long. Like several other red and black true bugs, box elder bugs are flat-backed and elongate. Behind its black head, a box elder bug has three lengthwise red stripes on its pronotum; these markings are characteristic of box elder bugs. Each wing is outlined in red on the outer edge and bears a diagonal red marking as well. Newly hatched box elder bug nymphs are bright red, with rounded abdomens. As they molt and age, black markings start to appear. Box elder bug eggs, laid in clusters, are golden or reddish brown. Classification of Box Elder Bugs Kingdom - AnimaliaPhylum - ArthropodaClass - InsectaOrder - HemipteraFamily - RhopalidaeGenus - BoiseaSpecies - trivittatus The Box Elder Bug Diet Adult box elder bugs feed on the sap of box elders, as well as other maple varieties, oaks, and ailanthus. They use piercing, sucking mouthparts to draw the sap from leaves, flowers, and seeds of these host trees. Box elder bug nymphs feed primarily on the seeds of box elder trees. The Box Elder Bug Life Cycle Box elder bugs undergo incomplete metamorphosis in three stages: Egg:Â  Females deposit clusters of eggs in bark crevices, on leaves, and on seeds of host plants in spring. Eggs hatch in 11-19 days.Nymph:Â  Nymphs go through five instars, changing from bright red to darker red with black markings as they molt.Adult: By mid-summer, the box elder bugs reach adulthood. In some areas, this new population of adults may then mate and lay eggs, resulting in a second generation before fall. Special Habits and Behaviors of Box Elder Bugs Box elder bugs aggregate in sunny places for warmth during fall. Adults overwinter in buildings, often in attics or inside walls. On sunny winter days, they may become active and cluster near windows or other warm areas of the home. Adults do not reproduce while overwintering in buildings. Like many other true bugs, box elder bugs produce a foul odor when crushed, so the worst thing you can do is try to squash them. Indoors, they may leave fecal stains on walls and draperies. Where Do Box Elder Bugs Live? (Besides Your House) Box elder bugs live in forests or other areas with deciduous trees, especially places where box elder trees grow. Boisea trivittatus, also known as eastern box elder bug, lives east of the Rocky Mountains in both the U.S. and southern Canada. The similar species Boisea rubrolineatus, western box elder bug, inhabits areas west of the Rockies. Other Common Names for Box Elder Bugs Box elder bugs are also known by the names: eastern box elder bug, boxelder bug, maple bug, democrat, politician bug, and populist bug.

Fire Prevention at Waste Handling and Control

Fire Prevention at Waste Handling and Control Solid Waste Management Systems Waste management systems cover processes of collection, temporal storage, internal transportation, treating, and finally the goal of garbage disposal or remains generated from garbage management procedures (Douncet Gilyeat 1).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Fire Prevention at Waste Handling and Control specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Other common terms related to waste management systems include; waste handling, waste storage, waste processing and waste treatment. Waste handling comprises all the processes concerned with the transportation from the point of generation. Waste handling systems and equipment generally include chutes, transportation vehicles and carts. Waste storage comprises all the processes of containing generated waste in controlled places, after collection and transport, before handling, recycling, treatment or final disposal. Waste storage systems vary based on the type of waste, constituents, properties, mode of collection and transportation. Bulky wastes can be stored in pits o silos, while bags, drums or containers are used for containing smaller wastes. Waste processing refers to processes that alter physical properties, shape, size or consistency. Common systems and equipment used in waste processing comprise compactors, shredders, escapsulators, extruders, crushers, pulpers, pulverizers, baggers and dewatering equipment. Solid waste management deals with all types of refuse ranging from municipal waste management, recycling programs, composts, and incinerators. The type of waste management systems applied differs based on several factors, including kinds of wastes generated, components, forms, characteristics, amount, and the rate at which they are generated. Waste management systems can range from simple to complex.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Different processes and equipment exist for the management of industrial garbage. The applied devices vary depending on the kinds, amounts, forms, and hazardous components of the garbage. Solid industrial wastes management varies from simple to complex systems. There are systems for storage, handling and storage. Systems and equipment for handling trash include chutes, carts, elevators, conveyors, vehicles for transportation. Solid wastes can be classified into any of the following classes namely; putrescibles ( these are wastes generated from houses, animal wastes or agricultural wastes etc), bulky combustibles-wood, cloth and wastes found on streets; bulky noncombustible wastes like metallic items and minerals; small combustible material (same as bulky combustible, the only difference is the size); non empty cans and bottles; powder and dusts e.g. explosives; sludge; pathological wastes; abandoned automobiles; wastes from construction and demolition; and radiological wastes (Douncet Gilyeat 12). Waste Chutes and Handling Systems A waste chute is generally a system that is fixed for moving garbage from where it is produced or temporarily stored to a central point so that it can be collected, processed, treated or finally disposed. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) regulates construction of waste chutes and their maintenance (Drake 1). NFPA 82, called the Standard on Incinerators and Waste and Linen Handling Systems and Equipment, stipulates the minimum requirements for waste chutes that all landlords must adhere to, however other codes also must be taken into account. Five categories of chutes can be identified namely; general access, gravity types systems; limited access, gravity types systems; pneumatic system; gravity –pneumatic system; and multi-pneumatic loading system. General access, gravity types systems have a vertical passage enclosed inside that allows garbage to flow by gravitational force.Adver tising We will write a custom essay sample on Fire Prevention at Waste Handling and Control specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Citizens residing in apartments with this kind of chute cannot access this system. Limited access, gravity types systems are more or less the same as general access, gravity types systems, the only difference is that in the latter entry is limited. Access can be through chute entry doors that are locked or maybe closed service opening space doors. These types of chutes are mainly found in health facilities. Pneumatic systems make use of air-circulation to move trash from chute openings to a centralized point for collection. They can be installed horizontally, vertically or diagonally, based on blow and the characteristic of making them. They are mostly found in hospitals. Nonetheless, these chutes can be utilized everywhere-apartments clubs, or restaurants. Gravity-pneumatic system employs gravitational force t o connect a receiving compartment that connects to pneumatic chute system. Multiloading pneumatic system is the same as pneumatic; the difference is that access in the latter uses automatic doors to close. Safety officers should pay great attention in designing and building chute systems. In order to contain fires in buildings, we cannot afford to ignore waste handling systems and chute design. In case of a fire outbreak, waste chutes can easily act as conduits of fueling fires or conveying smokes in residential apartments or work premises. Moreover, chutes are believed to be garbage storage locations as they can be blocked anytime when in use, hence pose a threat of smoke and fire outbreak. NFPA has developed standards which are supposed to be followed with respect to constructing chutes, the systems of enclosures, fire dampers, sprinklers, and service openings. All these standards are geared towards one major goal-reducing the chances of fire outbreaks and control of the same. Fir e prevention Fire prevention can minimize the damage to properties, injury, health, and ecological risks of landfill fires. The cost of prevention is generally low compared to the cost of fighting and cleaning up a fire.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In most cases, especially for bigger landfills, fire prevention efforts and measures are mandatory. Proper landfill management is crucial for effective landfill fire prevention methods. Management procedures comprise of restricting all types of calculated fire, carefully examining and controlling the influx of wastes, compressing wastes buried to thwart hot spots from forming, banning cigarette smoking near or onsite, and finally tightening security measures onsite. Methane gas must be detected and managed at a Landfill site (World Bank). The emission of methane gas is dangerous not only to the environment but also poses a great health risk to the residents living close to the landfill sites. Methane gas, a highly inflammable gas, can be disaster in waiting. According Federal Regulations all MSW landfill workers are mandated by law to carefully monitor the levels of methane gas after every four month per year. In instance where methane gas levels in or near the landfill build up to an explosive state, the landfill worker should take precautionary measures to curb any impeding hazard. They must also put into action a mitigation measures to avert risks of landfill fires (Boulevard 20). Incinerators Incineration is a waste management process which uses high temperatures for garbage treatment and disposal. Incinerators that are well constructed and maintained can go a long way in reducing the quantities of solid wastes generated from different sources by over 85 percent, thus huge sums of money could be saveds of domestic compactor include under -the counter and movable and can be purchased from convenient stores. This type minimizes fire risk of stored waste by trapping it in a metallic chamber under compaction. In spite of this, they should have the capacity for manual opening to enable waste to easily discard due to a mishap of power in the appliance. One the other hand, commercial-industrial compactors are mainly used by many household residences as a primary system for treating wastes, and aid in waste handling. Apart from being used inside houses or put outside, they can be fed to a chute or just hand-fed. Four types of commercial compactors include; bulkhead, extrude, carousel bag packer and container packer. Bulkhead type compacter is mounted on plate. Once the compacted waste is ready, it can be removed and then a bag placed at the same location and stuffed with a compacted block. But for the extruder compactor, waste is inserted via a cylindrical opening. Driving force forces the waste to be compressed as passes through the cylinder. In a Carousel bag packer, waste is compressed step by step in containers that are contains bag linings. The bag rotates enabling each bag to be filled. Lastly, for container packer, waste is compressed in a litter bin. This can be done either manually or by the use of machines. Apart from incinerators, compactors, shredders are also used in managing solid wastes. Codes, Regulations, and Standards In or der to manage, and dispose industrial wastes properly, an in-depth knowledge and understanding of the characteristics of wastes, different types of technologies and processes, state regulations, codes and standards must be studied carefully. Important Federal Regulations providing guidelines for waste management and disposal include: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA), Subtitle C, Hazardous wastes Regulations, 40 CFR, parts 260-265 and 122-124; Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976, 10 CFR; clear Air Act of 1963 (CAA) and Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 and 1990; Oil Pollution Act of 1961; Federal Water Pollution Control act of 1948; occupational safety and Health Act of 1970 including National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and Federal Pesticide Control Act of 1972 (FIFRA Act) (.(Adapted from the handbook on Waste handling and control by Lawrence and Sharon). The general standards for waste materials and how to manage waste include; NFPA 241 Standard for Safeguarding Construction, Alteration, and Demolition Operations; NFPA 251 Standard Methods of Tests of Fire Resistance of Building Construction and Materials NFPA 252 Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Door Assemblies; NFPA 253 Standard Method of Test for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source; NFPA 255 Standard Method of Test of Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials; NFPA 256 Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Roof Coverings; NFPA 257 Standard on Fire Test for Window and Glass Block Assemblies; NFPA 258 Recommended Practice for Determining Smoke Generation of Solid Materials; NFPA 259 Standard Test Method for Potential Heat of Building Materials; NFPA 260 Standard Methods of Tests and Classification System for Cigarette Ignition Resistance of Components of Upholstered Furniture; NFPA 261 Standard Method of Test for Determining Resistance of Mock-Up Upholstered Furniture Material Assemblies to Ignition by Smolde ring Cigarettes; NFPA 262 Standard Method of Test for Flame Travel and Smoke of Wires and Cables for Use in Air-Handling Spaces; NFPA 265 Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Room Fire Growth Contribution of Textile Coverings on Full Height Panels and Walls; NFPA 266 Standard Method of Test for Fire Characteristics of Upholstered Furniture Exposed to Flaming Ignition Source; NFPA 267 Standard Method of Test for Fire Characteristics of Mattresses and Bedding Assemblies Exposed to Flaming Ignition Source; NFPA 268 Standard Test Method for Determining Ignitibility of Exterior Wall Assemblies Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source; NFPA 269 Standard Test Method for Developing Toxic Potency Data for Use in Fire Hazard Modeling; NFPA 270 Standard Test Method for Measurement of Smoke Obscuration Using a Conical Radiant Source in a Single Closed Chamber; NFPA 271 Standard Method of Test for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using an Oxygen Consumption Calo rimeter; NFPA 272 Standard Method of Test for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Upholstered Furniture Components or Composites and Mattresses Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter; NFPA 274 Standard Test Method to Evaluate Fire Performance Characteristics of Pipe Insulation; NFPA 69, Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems; NFPA 430, Code for the storage of liquid and solid oxidizer; NFPA 484, Standard for Combustible Metals; NFPA 654, Standard for the Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions from the manufacturing, Processing, and Handling of Combustible Particulate Solids; NFPA 13 , Standard for the installation of Sprinkler systems; NFPA 30, flammable and combustible liquid code; NFPA 31, standard or the installation of burning equipments; NFPA 54, National Fuel Gas code; NFPA 58, Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code; NFPA 68, and Standard on Explosion Protection by deflagration Venting (Adapted from NFPA). Today, solid waste management is a lucrative business accounting for bill ions of dollars or pounds in most developed countries. Waste collection companies collect tons of refuse per annum and sort it for reprocessing or final disposal. Many cities across the world demand residents to pay for garbage collection, while those in the countryside have dumpsites and recycling facilities for people to take their rubbish. The main aim is to cut down the amount of garbage blocking the lanes and degrading the environment, overlooking the possibility of waste recycling into important products or just discarded. Solid waste management systems are centered on designing ecologically friendly methods of disposing wastes. There are various categories of solid waste which are handled by waste management agencies. First and foremost we have recyclable garbage. These are items that are valuable. Solid waste management consists constructing to use scrap metals and other materials like glass, cans, paper, plastics, and wood. Second is toxic waste; this kind of garbage poses great risk to the environment; hence it should be disposed carefully. In most first world nations there are stringent guidelines on the management of such wastes. Some land lords can turn green waste into compost manure and use on their farms. This can improve soil fertility and hence boost food production. Green waste is productive than industrial wastes. Solid waste is collected in containers of varying sizes -household garbage bins, industrial dumpsites which are filled by persons or companies. Municipal Lorries transport the collected solid waste from streets on a regular basis. In some countries, Local governments have contracted private waste management companies to recycle, collect and treat the garbage generated from cities and industrial facilities. Most solid waste management facilities operate, maintain bigger dumpsite, while others burn their waste, using the energy produced by the incinerator to power a recycling plant or sell the electricity to companies that generate power. Waste management must take into consideration to avert possible fire outbreaks. Fire hazards can start during waste transportation, where it is generated, handling of waste, where it is temporarily stored, treatment and finally disposal. Therefore, fire safety measures must be taken into account in the design, building, and use of waste handling and treatment systems and equipment, like chutes, incinerators, compactors and shredders, as well as a stricter adherence to all Federal codes, standards and regulations. Wastes generated from industrial areas differ greatly from the domestic type; hence measures must be taken in the design of such incinerators for proper, safe, and efficient treatment and disposal in conformity with the set standards and complex regulations. Wastes generated from residences can be turned to useful products. Installing incinerators that are effective and efficient can convert wastes into energy to power cities across the world. Sustainable waste manag ement is the responsibility of each and every stakeholder. Boulevard, Wilson. Landfill Fires: Their magnitude, characteristics, and mitigation.  Virginia: United States Fire Administration National Fire Data Center, 2002. Print Douncet, Lawrence George, and Gilyeat Sharon. Fire protection handbook Vol 1. 20th Ed. Massachusetts: National Fire Protection Association, 2005.Print. Drake, Byrne. Trash Chute Requirements. n.d. Web. NFPA. List of NFPA codes standards. 2011. Web. https://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards World Bank. Urban Solid Waste Management. 2011.Web. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTURBANDEVELOPMENT/EXTUSWM/0,menuPK:463847~pagePK:149018~piPK:149093~theSitePK:463841,00.html

Ethics of Nursing Essay Sample

Ethics of Nursing Essay Sample Ethical Dilemma in Nursing Essay Nursing is a profession that is concentrated on the ability of a person to improve their skill in applying their roles and responsibilities to provide care for the patient. This means that the nurse is always available to ensure that proper care has been applied to the patient using the ideal standards of nursing principles. As a nurse, you are responsible for the prognosis of the patient to track their health condition while seeking treatment to the hospital. This is an important consideration because every patient has the right to receive a proper medical attention and treatment to any health care institution. As a patient, they also have the right to live a longer life, which is why they seek medical treatment and rehabilitation to prolong their longevity. Nursing is one of the most challenging professions in our society because practitioners need to follow the proper standards of care in either the hospital or community setting. This is because ethics play an important role in the professional practice of ever nurse in our community. Nurses often commit negligence, which is the most common offense applied in the hospital or in the community setting while providing treatment to patients. An example of this is a wrong medication, wrong patient, wrong route, and accidents during a treatment procedure due to lack of assessment. When nurse commits errors such as negligence, patients usually suffer another form of injury aside from their present condition of medical illness. As a result, the life of the patient is challenged because they have been compromised by the nurse that should have been the right person to provide treatment to relieve signs and symptoms of the disease or disability. In nursing ethics, veracity is often applied because all patients should be treated with fairness while addressing their health concerns. There are nurses who failed to abide by the rules by failing to practice diversity towards the patients. Nurses are sometimes denying access to health care to patients because of their sexual orientation and race. Professional malpractice is also committed by nurses when they practice certain procedures towards the patient in order to improve their skill while compromising the health of the patients. As a result, the patient suffers from complications, especially when an accident happens during a procedure such as inserting a nasogastric tube. Patients trust all nurses when they are going to seek medical treatment at the hospital or during a community mission to provide health care services to a certain number of populations. Patients usually file for criminal complaints against the nurse whenever they feel that they were neglected. This is especially for patients who sustained injuries when they sought medical treatment at the hospital. As a result, the license of nurses has been revoked because they were proven guilty after the hospital conducted a thorough investigation into the matter. Hospital institutions who were involved in an ethical malpractice when their health care workers were responsible for causing damage or injuries to the patients, the license to operate can be compromised. The worst-case scenario for nursing ethics is when the patient died from injuries because nurses were unable to provide the rightful care while they were on duty. Former nurses who have their licenses revoked have to find a way to continue their productivity by searching for new jobs that are not associated with their former nursing practice (Gastmans, 2013). Reference Gastmans, C. (2013). Dignity-enhancing nursing care: A foundational ethical framework.  Nursing Ethics.  SAGE Publications.  20  (2): 142–149.

Political climate of Venezuela Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Political climate of Venezuela - Essay Example Various articulations in regards to democracy have been under the limelight, keeping in mind that political unrest violence is the main issue that brings about further curtailment of democracy in this nation. Venezuela is among the countries that take into account the virtue of multiparty and hence leading to the imposition of martial law as well as curtailing democratic rights in Venezuela. The United States of America that is the superpower has been against those people in support of President Chavez, who has been at large providing leadership full of poor governance. Elections held in the year 2012 was full of conspicuous results in that the Venezuela government have been forced out to permit the essence of the audit which is known to have been articulated fraudulent activities hence this could in turn help in revising the outcome of the elections (Valente, 23-29). Political unrest has been the subject as far as the political climate of Venezuela is of concern. Chavez on the other hand in his regime has worked diligently to make sure that his supporters believe that what he has achieved in his political system was not through deception and collusion with independent media. Some of the crucial negative insist that Venezuela political system has deployed includes the termination of popular Chavista social programs well known as Misiones Bolivarianas should the opposition takes into account the victory on the prevailing elections. I concur with L Philharmonic under heavy criticism over political climate of Venezuela.

Business plan Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Business plan - Term Paper Example The Coffee Lounge would harness the closeness to the University of Colorado. The best tasting beverages in the Coffee Lounge will be prepared with ingredients of premium quality following stringent quality guidelines to ensure the satisfaction of the connoisseur. The store layout will reflect the ambience to the youth, who would throng during the day and in the evenings after the college. The menu and the advertisements will target customers for higher margin espresso drinks. Along with Espresso drinks, brewed coffee and teas will also be on offer. To go with these beverages, some snacks such as pastries, sandwiches and salads will also feature in the menu. These menu offerings could be savored while reading free books and magazines that are provided to the customers inside the Coffee Lounge. The menu of the Coffee Lounge will be developed around Espresso-based coffee drinks such as Lattes, Mochas, and Cappuccinos etc. These drinks will be on offer with skimmed, whole or soy milk. Each of these drinks is prepared with a ‘shot’ of espresso prepared in the machine by forcing hot water through ground coffee at high pressure. These ‘shots’ are combined with steamed milk with or without additives such as cocoa, caramel, etc. Our meticulous preparation techniques and trained personnel will ensure our competitive advantage. The promotion activity will begin in the University of Colorado campus, the malls and select buildings in the vicinity of the campus. The kick off for promotion would be two weeks prior to the opening of the Coffee Lounge. These will be accompanied by free post cards with endorsement of Coffee Lounge aimed at increasing the visibility of the coffee lounge. The Coffee Lounge will be close to the University of Colorado with a 2400 Sq.Ft. area. This accommodation will be acquired through a three year lease with a flexibility to extend. The hook

How Global Value Chains May Have an Impact on an Organization's Supply Essay

How Global Value Chains May Have an Impact on an Organization's Supply Chain Design and Corporate Alignment - Essay Example The global value chain encompasses functions which are strongly included and frequently managed on a regular basis. Thus, these functions can impact on the activities of organization in home as well as in other host countries where they perform the business operations. These impacts are pretty straightforward when an organization from one nation inaugurates a new industrial unit or engineering unit in other nation. A few of the impacts are more complex when an organization of one nation makes an agreement with an organization in other nation in order to coordinate production in plants. The impacts of global value chain are precisely seen on the supply chain design and corporate alignment of an organization (Schroeder, Goldstein, & Rungtusanatham, 2010). Value Chain and Supply Chain The idea of value was first created and promoted by Michael Porter in the year 1985. He had demarcated value as the number of purchasers who are prepared to pay for an organization’s products or ser vices (Chan, 2007). According to him, the value chain is the blend of nine common value added functions inside an organization which can deliver value to the consumers. On the other hand, the concept of supply chain first appeared in the year 1980. Supply chain describes the handling of material flow inside an organization from suppliers to the end users. ... Impact of Global Supply Chain on Organization’s Supply Chain Design Nowadays, globalization is no longer restricted to only products; it has expanded to other business aspects such as foreign direct investment, occupation and services among others. The global value chain is determined by the organization’s wish to raise competency, because increasing domestic competition and global market powers are facilitating organizations to become more effective with respect to cost of products and services. In this regard, a strong value chain can help organizations to enter new evolving markets and to improve access to strategic resources which can assist in tapping foreign business knowledge (Kleindorfer, Singhal, & Wassenhove, 2005). In order to cope up with the changes carried by rapid globalization, there is need for an accurate supply chain design. A properly structured supply chain design can enhance the internal network and flow of resources through it. With constant commo ditization of several goods, organizations require improved methods to differentiate themselves from other competitors. In order to compete in the global market, there is need for improvement through supply chain redesign. Therefore, global value chain can impact on supply chain design of organizations in order to fulfill the objective of cost minimization and to develop a more efficient value chain to stay cost competitive (Power, 2005). Impact of Global Value Chain on Corporate Alignment The global value chain is also related with the corporate alignment of an organization. The global value chain delivers the contents of organizational culture, management style,

I will download directions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

I will download directions - Essay Example These are the ideals of Integrity thoroughly highlighted by Stephen L. Carter in his The Rules About The Rules. According to Carter, a person’s individual life does not bear the importance howsoever healthy, peaceful and happy it is. ‘Integrity’ demands to influence the lives of others by bringing them under the attributes of ‘right’. This is the principle which guides the United States of America in its hazardous efforts to bring tranquility and peace in the world. It means what it has been following since its very birth are the lights of ‘Integrity’. Thomas Jefferson, in his â€Å"Declaration of Independence† has worded that all men are created equal (p 13). I disagree because the equality as stated by Jefferson does not extend to all men. Some are superiors in terms of qualities, the others inferior. But this is not what Jefferson wants to communicate; he has his own philosophy of the statement having a certain background. What he wants to convey is that all men are created equal in terms of the rights of freedom, joy and aspiration for happiness. He complains against the ruthless approach of the British Government towards the inhabitants of the American Colony. He demands for the due rights all the humans deserve in common. Jefferson here satisfies the first condition of Carter’s explanation of the word â€Å"Integrity† (p 6). ... Surely he has done it with the resources available to him at that time. It means Jefferson is a man of Integrity by the definition of Carter. Jefferson satisfies me because he has grasped something wrong, figured it out loudly before the community and also fought for its stoppage. Jefferson is therefore a man of integrity to me as well. Apart from Thomas Jefferson, the United States of America feels proud of having the services of two other great names in its history; Thomas Jefferson known for his Declaration Of Independence and Martin Luther King for his Letter From Birmingham Jail. Both the documents bear extreme importance in the history of United States of America and England. Both voice the injustices of the Britain government. Both are similar in nature complaining against the cruel policies of the British government towards the minorities. Both claim that they deserve the right to raise voice against the brutalities of the government. Here, there is a call for justice. For in stance Jefferson cries out against the King of Britain to have obstructed the administration of justice by denying the Judiciary its powers (p 14) whereas Martin Luther King weeps over the fact that the orders of the Judiciary are not being obeyed in England as in the decision of Supreme Court in 1954 (p 167). If Jefferson terms the King guilty of ordering the officers for the harassment of their men (p 14), Martin Luther views the attitude of the Police towards the Negroes as brutal (p 172). The Declaration Of Independence tells that the people of America were deprived of their basic civil and social rights like carrying out trade with other nations of the world. Besides, the King looted their wealth over sea, coasts and towns and imposed unjust taxes on them (Jefferson, p 14). Letter

IT Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

IT - Assignment Example The basic formats and practices can be duplicated however on the other hand to generalize and say IT no longer enables companies to create a competitive advantage in the marketplace was unsupported. Information technology is an evolving science its full potential still unknown. However with a better understanding of the innovative uses of the science companies have the potential of creating an advantage in the marketplace. The creation and determinant of the effective use of IT is contingent upon a myriad of factors, how a company implements the use of IT in its organizational structure and internal practices, how IT is used in a company’s external marketing campaigns, and whether the value of IT is understood by the leaders and managers as it relates to distinguishing sustainability. Corporations such as Wal-Mart, Hewlett-Packard, United Airlines and other recognizable firms provide the evidence that IT does enable companies to create a competitive advantage. Each of the companies listed has consistently used information technology to distinguish itself in the marketplace. Whereas other firms have implemented similar practices, the firms listed continue to set themselves apart by using IT in innovative and creative ways. An image of IT as a rigid format is erroneous to the contrary information technology presents unlimited possibilities. Leaders within an organization have the responsibility and duty to investigate the application and adaptability of IT practices for the maximum usage. By continuing to develop and implement IT strategies companies can position themselves as leaders within their respective industries. The lack of knowledge of the potential benefits of IT and its application within the organization as well as the benefits in the marketplace can make IT appear to be ineffective and a mundane costly endeavor (Parsons, 1984; Mata, Fuerst, & Bailey, 1995). Business leaders

The High Middle Ages Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

The High Middle Ages - Research Paper Example Since Latin was the language of the Catholic Church, which dominated Western and Central Europe, and since the Church was virtually the only source of education, Latin was a common language for Medieval writings, even in some parts of Europe that were never Romanized. However, in Eastern Europe, the influence of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Orthodox Church made Greek and Old Church Slavonic the dominant written languages. The common people continued to use their respective vernaculars. A few examples, such as the Old English Beowulf, the Middle High German Nibelungenlied, the Medieval Greek Digenis Acritas and the Old French Chanson de Roland, are well known to this day. Although the extant versions of these epics are generally considered the works of individual (but anonymous) poets, there is no doubt that they are based on their peoples' older oral traditions. Celtic traditions have survived in the lais of Marie de France, the Mabinogion, and the Arthurian cycles. A notable amount of medieval literature is anonymous. This is not only due to the lack of documents from a period, but also due to an interpretation of the author's role that differs considerably from the romantic interpretation of the term in use today. Medieval authors were often overawed by the classical writers and the Church Fathers and tended to retell and embellish stories they had heard or read rather than invent new stories. And even when they did, they often claimed to be handing down something from an actor instead.

IT Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

IT - Assignment Example The basic formats and practices can be duplicated however on the other hand to generalize and say IT no longer enables companies to create a competitive advantage in the marketplace was unsupported. Information technology is an evolving science its full potential still unknown. However with a better understanding of the innovative uses of the science companies have the potential of creating an advantage in the marketplace. The creation and determinant of the effective use of IT is contingent upon a myriad of factors, how a company implements the use of IT in its organizational structure and internal practices, how IT is used in a company’s external marketing campaigns, and whether the value of IT is understood by the leaders and managers as it relates to distinguishing sustainability. Corporations such as Wal-Mart, Hewlett-Packard, United Airlines and other recognizable firms provide the evidence that IT does enable companies to create a competitive advantage. Each of the companies listed has consistently used information technology to distinguish itself in the marketplace. Whereas other firms have implemented similar practices, the firms listed continue to set themselves apart by using IT in innovative and creative ways. An image of IT as a rigid format is erroneous to the contrary information technology presents unlimited possibilities. Leaders within an organization have the responsibility and duty to investigate the application and adaptability of IT practices for the maximum usage. By continuing to develop and implement IT strategies companies can position themselves as leaders within their respective industries. The lack of knowledge of the potential benefits of IT and its application within the organization as well as the benefits in the marketplace can make IT appear to be ineffective and a mundane costly endeavor (Parsons, 1984; Mata, Fuerst, & Bailey, 1995). Business leaders

Trifles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Trifles - Essay Example The women are there to collect a few clothes and necessities to take to Minnie. As they move round the house, the women find the cage of Minnie’s pet canary broken open and then find the corpse of the bird in a box with its neck wrung. It is obvious to Mrs. Peters and Mrs. Hale that Wright has killed the canary and this is Millie’s motive for murdering her husband. In a show of feminine empathy and solidarity, the two women conceal Minnie’s crime from the men. The moral dilemma of the play lies in the unspoken debate on Minnie’s guilt, or innocence, and the rightness of the action of the women. Minnie Wright should not be found guilty of her actions because of the personality of her husband, the fact that she has been punished enough, and the low chances of her receiving justice at the hands of a largely male jury. John Wright is a man of queer character. He is obviously not a sociable man and is critical of others. Refusing to join Lewis Hale in a party t elephone, Wright says, â€Å"folks talked too much anyway, and all he asked was peace and quiet† (Glaspell, 5). It is clear that he is a taciturn, unsociable man who prefers to be a loner. His personality is characterized by the absence of any trace of joy. Mrs. Hale tells the County Attorney, â€Å"I don’t think a place’d be any cheerfuller for John Wright’s being in it† (Glaspell, 11). It is acknowledged that, in spite of being â€Å"good† in terms of being a teetotaler , truthful and paying his debts, he is undoubtedly â€Å"a hard man† (Glaspell, 22). Again, in every reference to the murdered man, there are suggestions that he was not a good husband. Hale hints of Wright’s indifference to Minnie’s needs by saying, â€Å"I didn’t know as what his wife wanted made much difference to John† (Glaspell, 5). Mrs. Hale confirms her husband’s view of Wright by pointing out that he did not have the homemak ing instinct. Wright is so close-fisted that he does not give Minnie the little money she needs to join the Ladies Aid. His wife does not have the means to wear pretty clothes and is forced to be shabbily turned out. Above all, it is evident that John Wright had a cruel streak in him. This is demonstrated in his killing of the canary. There is no doubt that Wright is the one who wrung the bird’s neck. A man who could break open a bird cage and brutally strangle the helpless creature is not a man to live with. John Wright’s character is definitely an extenuating factor in any estimation of Minnie’s actions and her guilt. Wright’s character is such that any woman who is constrained to share his life undergoes a form of punishment. Minnie Wright has been punished enough over her years as John Wright’s wife. When just a casual meeting with the man is â€Å"like a raw wind that gets to the bone† (Glaspell, 22), it is clear that being his wife is hell. The woman who â€Å"used to wear pretty clothes and be lively, when she was Minnie Foster, one of the town girls singing in the choir,† (Glaspell, 14) is transformed by her marriage into a shabbily dressed, silent housewife. The transformation is so great, that Mrs. Hale exclaims in emphatic wonder, â€Å"How – she – did – change (Glaspell, 22). Wright’s off-putting personality ensures that she has no visitors and remains in lonely isolation. His tight-fistedness closes Minnie’s door to any social life. Mrs. Hale regrets the fact that she never

Post Olympic Effects on Hospitality Industry Essay Example for Free

Post Olympic Effects on Hospitality Industry Essay Aim: To identify the issues that the hospitality industry may be faced with  post Olympics 2012 and to recommend  strategies to overcome the reduction in the business to hospitality organisations. Objectives: 1. To study the opportunities in the hospitality industry during Olympic 2012 2. To evaluate the impact of post Olympics 2012 on hospitality industry. 3. To recommend the strategies to the hospitality industry to survive post Olympic downfall in business The London Olympics is spending a huge amount of money for the Olympic Games and for their facilities. Preparing for the Olympics, hospitality industry needs to consider the impact of tourists during the Olympics time and beyond. It involves the pre and post Olympic stays of the tourist. The hoteliers are creating a unique atmosphere and spending lots of money for the Olympics. Hospitality industry has challenges to recover all the money which they spend for Olympics, which depends on the strategies which they will use after post Olympics. The Olympic Game is now becoming the most important event in the calendars of sport tourism and is also acting as a catalyst for the growth of a tourism destination’s product. It is very important to examine the pre-games impact and contrasting them with post games results, researching the works of various authors on the same topics pulls up the threat of vast differences. It is very obvious that there is essential need for more rigorous and standardized industry method to reduce the differences to minimum. The reports of DCMS suggests that there is an inadequate attention and underestimation of importance is being paid to what could be the most important period of all that is the post Olympic period and there is also an overall lacking in understanding the behavior of Olympic tourists. It is very vital to evaluate the post games impact of Olympics on Hospitality as a great deal of money and time is invested into predicting the impacts of the games, the Games suffer from a lack of ex-post analysis. London 2012 will provide an opportunity for UK to generate extra revenue as sport tourism is now considered to be in the introduction phase to the tourism product lifecycle, London now has achieved the position which could help to maintain a unique competitive advantage through tailoring the product to the contemporary tourists. London 2012 Olymdspic Games Visit Britain’s aim’s to use cultural and sporting activities to improve the quality of life, support the pursuit of excellence, creative and leisure industries, and champion the tourism. It will also track progress, monitor and implement as follows: BHA will work towards a new tourism growth target for 2008-11, and later a further target for 2012-15, and monitor progress towards those targets. The Strategy will be to maximize the legacy through effective post-games marketing and make London and Britain â€Å"must see destinations’. DCMS, Visit Britain and Visit London published Winning in 2007 after consulting the local tourism agencies and tourism industry, Visit Britain (2011). Wining is the revised document emerged after consultation and its envisaged programmed will run until 2017. It was an enviable task to write a strategy that would embrace the whole of UK, yet accurate to make the most of the opportunity provided by the London 2012 games . The document also mentions more specific targets and aspirations, as in how through tourism extra revenue will be generated using London 2012 games. For example, it showcases an explicit objective that would help in reversing the decline in domestic overnight stays which explains lack of interests or attention on cultural tourism. Although they mentioned about new festivals, the desire to imitate Australia which achieved success by utilizing the 2000 games and contributed extra thirty percent through cultural activities in international tourist participation and the cultural Olympiad. Can these aims prove feasible/how realistic they can be? A strategy called Winning was published in the year 2007 which was supported by researchers and prominent economist from UK, who claim that the London 2012 Olympics can unveil an opportunity to UK to add ? 2. 1 billion additional revenue to the overall tourism benefits. The substantial economic bequest written is, there will be a dramatic increase in the number of tourist spending, which is merely supported or justified with the aid of their positive projection. The accent on estimated revenue by tourism as a vital monetary consequence of the event allows an appealing negation. The Tourism policy is also being marginalized in organizational structures and strategy scaffolds of broader Olympic development. Visit Britain and Visit London is forecasting that amid 50-70% of the net economic profit of organizing the games measures over 7-10 year period will amass through tourism. These forecasts are a result of â€Å"ex- ante† monetary collision analysis which is reputably unpredictable. (Kronbalatt, 2006) and (Crompton, 1995) indeed suggest vigilance when taking into account such tourism projection for Olympic profits. By developing three estimates of its most probable effects (Blake, 2005) accredited the vague economic results of the Olympic Games. The central case suggests that there can be an increase of 1. 5% to the UK’s tourism amid 2012 and 2016. However possible consequences can range amid a probable decrease by 4% or increase in 7%. To ascertain the correctness of these forecasts, the report also contains ways on how to observe the effects. The only facet that initiates concern is that being so close to the event, the UK had failed to have an initiates in the earlier part as Sydney did. Winning, a strategy which was published in 2007 is supported by suggestions from economists, researches and postulates that the 2012 games will provide them an opportunity to generate ? 2. 1 billion in additional tourism benefits (DCMS, 2007, p. 17). The main tangible economic legacy of the games will be an increase in the number of visitors spending is justified with the help of their optimistic projection. The emphasis on Tourism revenue as the key economic outcome of the games allows an interesting contradiction. Tourism policy has been marginalized both in the organizational structures and policy framework of wider Olympic planning. Visit Britain and Visit London is estimating that between 50-70% of the net economic benefits of staging the event measured over 7-10 year period will accrue through tourism. Such forecast are the outcome of â€Å"ex-ante† economic impact analyses which are notoriously unreliable (Crompton, 1995). Kornblatt (2006) certainly recommends caution when considering the tourism projections of â€Å"Olympic benefits†. These positions are reaffirmed by academic analyses. By developing three estimates of its likely effects (Blake, 2005) acknowledged the uncertain economic outcomes of the 2012 games. According to Blake’s â€Å"Central Case†, the most likely outcome is that there can be an increase in tourism to the UK of 1. 5% between 2012 and 2016. However, Blake also suggests that the effects could range between a reduction of 4% and an increase of 7%. To establish the accuracy of these forecasts, the report also includes measures on how to monitor the effects. The only aspect that initiates worries is that, being so close to the games, the UK does not almost have any initiatives similar to that of Sydney, where effects of longitudinal tourism were monitored by groups that began working well before the 2000 games and which included a strong representation from the academic community ( e. g. , see Faulkner et al. ,2001). To recommend the strategies to the hospitality industry to survive post Olympics downfall in business: According to a stark warning from the European Tour Operators Association issued for the start of British Tourism Week LONDON tourism is â€Å"running away† from the U. K. rather than toward it. The main concern was the shortage of availability of hotel space at â€Å"reasonable market rates† in London during Olympics period. ETOA’s Executive director, Tom Jenkins had said that the European tour operators are â€Å"most concerned that the U. K. in general is underperforming on the worldwide tourism market†, citing a 105% U. K. 10-year growth figure compared to 130% growth in European tourism and 195% worldwide. On the other hand along with raising problems with the taxation system and the complications and restrictions imposed with getting a U. K visa, Jenkins also highlighted â€Å"a core postulated that London will have bonanza year for business in 2012† as leading to overpricing and a potential pre- and post-Olympics â€Å"crater† in the hotel market. He also warned this Olympic effect could have much longer lasting implications. According to the research made by us we would recommend the following strategies for the issues: UK hoteliers should be able to position themselves for the London Olympics: Hoteliers need to consider the before and after impact of visitors coming for the Olympics or arranging the vacation holidays around the time of the event. They need to consider the impact of the event itself. It should be mainly focused in terms of occupancy and rate and most of the hotels should have sophisticated models in place to deal with these issues Smith and Stevenson (2009) . London hoteliers should incorporate Olympics related ideas into their packages: The hoteliers should use the occasion to create a unique atmosphere. It is important that all the UK hotels recognizes that it will have to step up to the plate and offer a world-class welcome to what could possibly be completely new inbound markets Gibson (2010). Improving customer service: People expect best service when they come to visit the country for the Olympics. In this situation many skilled workers are required for providing a good experience for the visitors. The hotels must employ sufficient staff, as well as well trained chef to work flexibly and must be able to cope up the pressure. They should employ people who will welcome the visitors in a helpful manner and in a professional way. They should also have good language skills as well as they must be aware of disability requirements and other cultural ideas, Red White and Blacks (2011). Need to increase accessibility: The Paralympics games are going to attract nearly 4,500 athletes, the tourism business must strive to provide reliable information about accessible facilities and must understand the need of the visitors mainly the disabled people. They should explore the possibility of the research of the effectiveness of disability awareness training in the tourism industry. They should also consider the disability training as a part of gold standard customer service work Improve skills and retention of the staff: For the last two years more than half of the managers do not have minimum management qualifications. There is a severe shortage of skilled chefs. The main backdrop of the hospitality industry is high rate of staff turnover which costs approximately ? 1 billion each year. The employers should check for the qualification reform while recruiting new staffs. The industry must check more for employee benefits as well to retain the employees Kirkup Major (2006) Bibliography:

Child Abuse Interventions Within Black African Families

Child Abuse Interventions Within Black African Families Introduction Child abuse within Black African families is an important topic which has been given extensive attention in British social work research and literature to date. However, only a limited research on child abuse in African families have really considered the impact of socio-economic factors on social work interventions since the inception of the Children Act 1989 (England and Wales). Now the question is why is the issue of socio-economic status of West African families living in the UK an important factor to consider in social work intervention in child abuse cases? My aim in addressing this topic is that research works and literature show that Black children and their families are more likely than whites to be subjected to unnecessary child abuse interventions by social work agencies and other professionals (Bernard Gupta, 2006). Recent research show that in all groups, black children were over-represented on the child protection register under the category of poor parenting behaviour leading to all forms of abuse compared to white children (Bernard Gupta, 2006). This may also be seen within the context of the pathologization of Black families which, incorporates the view that black people, their socio-economic lifestyles are inherently problematic and need correcting (Singh 2006, p. 19) and therefore social workers may intervene unnecessarily in such families. Social workers on the contrary may hesitate to intervene with Black families due to being unsure whether certain parenting behaviours resulting from low socio-economic status are really an abuse or not. The potential consequences of such approach for Black families will be either that the children and their families will be unnecessarily investigated under the child protection system and may be subject to court orders, admitted to local authority care, and/or adopted, or that there will not be appropriate intervention by social workers for black children at risk of significant harm, and therefore children may continue to be harmed or even die. This is evident in recent years, where the vulnerability of some black African children in Britain has been highlighted by the tragic deaths of two African children: Victoria Climbià © (Laming, 2003) and the young boy known as Adam, whose torso was found floating in the River Thames (Sale, 2005). Also more recently, media reports of possible ‘ritual abuse of African children in Britain were fuelled by the criminal prosecution in relation to Child ‘B, who was physically abused because it was believed she was a ‘kindoki a victim of witchcraft possessed by the devil (Tendler and Woolcock, 2005; Thompson, 2005). In a broader context Socio-economic status is defined as: ‘a composite measure that typically incorporate economic status, which is measured by income; social status, measured by education; and work status, measured by occupation (Dulton Levine, 1989, p.30). The three indicators are interrelated but not fully overlapping variables. In this context socio-economic status is considered in terms of economic status, defined as low income or poverty. The difficulties for majority of West African Black families who are mainly asylum seekers from poverty-stricken and war-torn countries now living in the UK are not confined only to how they may be viewed by social workers involved in child care but significantly by their child-rearing differences arising from their socio-economic backgrounds (Beranard Gupta 2006). The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (Department of Health, 2000) based on the ecological approach places a requirement on social workers to consider families histories, cultural and socio-economic status. Therefore the low socio-economic status of many West African families living in the UK is one big challenge for social work professionals working to safeguard and protect these children from abuse from parents responsible for their care. Therefore key information from the literature will be discussed to explore a number of issues that will help social work professionals to deploy the most appropriate and effective method of social work interventions in child abuse cases with West African families in poverty so as to protect these children from all forms of abuse. Moreover, difficulties in social work intervention in child abuse cases may arise, as explained by Korbin (2004), because the process of assessing a child abuse case is complex and parent al behaviours and child outcomes may not be the same in different socio-economic settings. Henceforth, child abuse within West African families can risk reproducing stereotypes of this ethnic minority as ‘deficient, thus fostering pathological viewpoint of African family relationships (Platt, 2005). This raises the question of how can social work practices direct attention to pertinent socio-economic issues framing the experiences of West African children at risk of significant harm, yet not to reproduce ideas of all West African families as deficient. These complex circumstances make social work intervention a major challenge in recent times and therefore, calls for a new perspective in terms of skills, knowledge and conceptual tools to distinguish between the styles of parenting that differ from those of the majority culture, but at the same time safeguarding and protecting children from significant harm. The dissertation has built its theoretical framework on social work theory, policy and practice and will use key conceptual framework from the social-contextual approaches to intervention. The methodology for this work was mainly qualitative and the literature search has been obtained from primary and secondary sources. The dissertation will lay out various issues regarding the social work intervention processes used for West African families with low socio-economic status. The first chapter provides literature on black African children and the child protection system. Chapter two provides a discussion on the increased complexity of social work intervention in child abuse cases involving West African families with low socio-economic status. It also analyse how socio-economic factors cultivate a particular parenting behaviours that impact on social work interventions and thus, bringing West African children living in the UK into the child protection arena. Then chapter three draws on legislations and policies regulating social work practices in the UK. It examines social work practices required to provide competent social work interventions in child abuse cases among West African families and at the same time would not compromise children safety and protection. Chapter four critically analyse the methods of interventions available to social workers to use in effecting positive change in black African community. Finally chapter five discusses the implicat ions of social work intervention made by social work professionals among West African families of low socio-economic status. Chapter one Black African Children And Child Protection Systems The Prevalence Of Black Children On Child Protection Systems There are a number of recent studies on Black families and the child protection system which suggest that these families are disproportionately represented at different levels in the child protection system. Gibbons et al (2005) study looked at the operation of the child protection system in eight local authorities in Britain. A part of their study looked at the racial background of the referred families and they found that Black families were over-represented compared with White families on referrals involving physical injury (58% vs. 42%). Black families were also more often referred for using an implement to inflict the physical injury. The researchers argue that this finding illustrates parenting differences in child-rearing, and the difficulty of deciding what forms of physical punishments are ‘acceptable in Britain. They continued to report that the consequences of the injuries inflicted on the Black children were no more likely to be long-lasting, but what seemed unaccep table for the people who referred these children to social services was the form the punishment took. This research study raises an interesting point about child-rearing and parenting differences. Is it the case that Black families, as part of their culture of child-rearing stemming from their poverty status, use physical punishment more as a means of discipline than White families? A recent study by Ellis (2007) found that some West African parents adopted a harsh disciplinary approach with their children as they believe there is no other alternative way of instilling discipline in their children. But the vast people of the majority ethnic community could use options like keeping playing toys away from the children or not taking the children on a holiday and/or depriving them of visiting their friends as a form of instilling disciplining in the children. Ellis (2007) also noted that these punishments are likely to be meted out in a fairly public situation and, though they may be painful, they are unlikely to get out of hand and go beyond what is culturally acceptable. This would appear to support Gibbon et al (2005) findings that the consequences of the injuries to the Black children in their study were not likely to be long-lasting. Another research study by Gibbon Wilding (2005) looked at three local authorities, two of which had significant populations of Black families. One of their findings indicate that referrals around inadequate supervision of children in the two authorities show that a significant number of children referrals came from Black families with low income status than black families with medium/high income status. It could be argued that families with low income status have to strive hard to make ends means by engaging in two or more menial jobs to financially sustain the family. As a result children are inadequately supervised by the very people who are responsible for their care. Considering this kind of socio-economic circumstances, Gibbon Wilding (2005) question whether such referrals should be considered within the child protection framework, or whether it would be better to provide welfare interventions and services for such families under the children in need Act (The Children Act 1989 , England and Wales, S.17). This finding has a number of possible implications for West African children and their families, it may mean that they will remain in the child protection system for longer whilst the necessary services are identified and implemented; or perhaps that assessments and intervention services are provided but are not socio-economically sensitive, and therefore only serve to disadvantage families further. Furthermore, as part of their study, they found that proportionately more Black children were subject to child abuse investigations than White children. They found that of all the children in their study sample on the register, 60% were Black. A possible reason for this over-representation was that social work professionals working with the families had no or little understanding of the socio-economic backgrounds of these black African families (Barn et al. 2007). The researchers also found that White social workers and practitioners emphasized their lack of socio-economic awareness as a weakness when working with Black families, whilst Black social workers and practitioners argued that poverty and ethnicity were not adequately taken into account due to euro-centric child protection procedures. One might speculate whether the parents/guardians of these children refuse to cooperate with social service agencies or whether these agencies are taking a heavy-handed approach, perhaps have pathological approach towards such families. Further data shows that the number of African children in need in the sample week in 2005 is 8,000 (Department for Education and Skills, 2006a). This figure accounts for 3 per cent of the overall total, which is an over-representation inferring from the 2001 census where African children makes up 1.4 per cent of the population. A number of studies indicate that most families of children in need, regardless of ethnicity, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of poverty (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). Many West African children in need will not be drawn into the child protection system, if they are made to receive voluntary welfare support services. Thoburn et al.s (2005) review of the research into the nature and outcomes of child welfare services for black children concluded that African children are almost twice as likely to be looked after than the white majority children in the population as a whole, which then suggest, that some of these children will be accommoda ted under section 20 of the 1989 Children Act, by virtue of being raised by families of low socio-economic status. Beranard and Gupta (2006) found that in relation to the reasons for African children being involved in the child protection system, no official national data are collected on ethnicity and reasons for referral or registration on the child protection register (Department for Education and Skills, 2006b). Research data paint a complex and often contradictory picture and once again the information is often aggregated with data on other minority ethnic children. Brophy et al.s (2003) study, which separated data on different minority ethnic families, highlights an increase complexity in the cases involving African children and found that many involved ‘multiple concerns and allegations about parental behaviour. Arguably, there are a number of contributory factors which could be perceived as important in understanding the involvement of West African families with social work agencies and the resultant over-representation of their children in public care and in the child protection system. Broadly speaking, these range from poverty and social exclusion, to child abuse and neglect, poor social work assessments and intervention, and overt and covert racism. The Government Policies And Initiatives The Commission for Racial Equalitys submission to the DFES/HM Treasury Joint Policy Review on children and young people identifies a number of shortcomings of some government policy initiatives such as Sure Start (CRE, 2006). As is the case with many other government policy initiatives, it is expected that Sure Start Centres will be responsive to black minority ethnic needs and concerns. The commitment of such policies is questioned when there is ‘no race equality impact assessment of the Childcare Act 2006 and only a brief mention of black ethnic minority families in the ten-year childcare strategy (CRE, 2006, p. 10). Whilst black ethnic monitoring of children in care, in need and on the child protection register now takes place at regional and national levels, there is little evidence that such information is utilized for policy and planning purposes to effect positive change. It is evident that race and welfare policy has been constrained by parochial perspectives which have tended to focus on how to deal with those in the system. For example, the policy and practice debate on ethnicity and substitute family placements diverts attention from preventive services which could help to obviate the admission of minority children into care in the first place. Similarly, preventive methods of intervention with West African families, such as Family Group Conferences, and systemic practice, as well as particular approaches such as kinship care, are less well developed (Broad and Skinner, 2005; Farmer and Moyers, 2005). Chapter Two Poverty, West African Families And Child Proctection Poverty And Child Protection All families and children for whom social work intervention is likely to be needed are also more than most subject to a range of social and economic problems and barriers. One major factor is chronic poverty which is often associated with unemployment or immigration, ethnic minority, or a single parent family. Poverty often goes hand in hand with other disadvantages and obstacles such as poor educational and employment opportunities, poor parenting, and allegations of child abuse cases. Many West African families and children problems are exacerbated by the interaction between socio-economic factors and their individual impairments and family situations. Unemployment levels are very high among West African families, who are also subject to stigma and prejudice on the part of the community. West African families living in the UK without jobs and no access to benefit and/or dependent on benefits find it hard to access credit. Poor children growing up in single-parent families suffer se rious parental disadvantage, which in turn result into social work interventions. Poverty as we all know is not even-handed. The chances of experiencing poverty are far higher with people from West Africa than with white people (Amin Oppenheim 2002). Institutional oppression is suffered by many West African people in many areas including housing ( Amin Oppenheim 2002), employment ( Chakrabarti et al. 2000), welfare state ( Sadiq-Sangster 2001), education and health which not only means that they are more likely to experience poverty and deprivation, but may also make them more susceptible to social work interventions in terms of child protection. Indeed one may expect Black children to be over-represented in child abuse statistics because their families are more open to surveillance as a result of figuring highly among indices of deprivation (Corby 1993, p.69). The relationship between poverty and child abuse has been broadly established (Thobum et al. 1993; Gibbons et al. 2005). Arguments favour the impact of poverty on child abuse shows an increasing number of child protection allegations referred into the system, and second was the proportion of cases leading to social work interventions and/or other forms of services. Numbers entering the system were hard to quantify. Whilst they showed an increase in registrations up to 1991 (Gibbons et al., 1995), no national records had been kept about referrals, and differences in recording practices and interpretation were widespread. Regarding proportional figures, the discussion was on slightly safer ground. A key finding from the 2005 research studies show that a large number of children were entered into the child protection system compared with those who were subject to social welfare procedures. Of a total number of child protection referrals, around 75 per cent were investigated and intervened, 25 per cent were subject to a child protection conference and only 15 per cent had their names placed on the child pr otection register as a result (Gibbons et al., 2005). Consequently, it was argued that the child protection ‘net was picking up too many cases inappropriately. This finding undermines the government aim of keeping children with families and reducing the number of children that enter the child protection register. On the contrast, it is important to consider the effectiveness of the child protection system. Broadly, it seemed to be achieving as much as could be expected in terms of the limited aim of preventing further abuse to identifiable children. There are, however, identifiable shortcomings of the child protection system. Social work interventions appeared to have quite traumatic effects on families (Department of Health, 1995), often generating anxiety and uncertainty for either children or parents, or both (Farmer and Owen, 2005). Poverty And Child Welfare Services Research shows that the poverty experienced by many West African families may be better met through preventative measures rather than child protection ones. Yet despite section 17 of the Children Act 1989, which places a duty on the local authority social workers to provide support for children in need, many social services children and family teams, barely have sufficient resources to meet their duties under child welfare and children looked after. However, unless these issues are tackled, West African families who need support for their children will receive it only when there is an issue of child protection. Furthermore, using socio-economic variables such as poverty as a predictor of high-risk families (Greenland 1997) fails to acknowledge the part prejudice plays for Black people. Consequently, these indicators of child abuse are seen as failings of the individual rather than the product of social inequality (Jones 2004). A number of studies have indicated that most West African families, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of material and emotional adversity (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). For instance West African families cannot take their children on a holiday trip or meet their wishes and wants. Brophy et al.s (2003) study suggests that immigration and asylum issues, combined with financial problems, are likely to be reasons for the increased complexity for social work professionals assessing and intervening child abuse cases involving West African children. The child protection system that exists in Britain will be unfamiliar to many West African families, especially those who recently arrived, as similar state systems do not exist in most West African countries, particularly where socio-economic factors overshadow intra-familial child maltreatment and intervention into child abuse and neglect (Lachman et al., 2002; Pierce and Bozalek, 2004). Brophy et al.s (2003) study conclud es that many black West African parents saw social work assessment and intervention in child welfare cases as a complete anathema and distrust, especially where parents migrate from countries in political turmoil and where there is no existence of child welfare services. There is also concern about the quality of social workers interventions in child abuse cases. For example, it is shown that investigations of alleged child abuse tended to focus on risk assessment rather than assessment leading to social work interventions of the needs of the whole child (Thoburn et al., 2007). In particular, social workers carrying out an investigation might not pick up problems emanating from poverty or social deprivation (Farmer and Owen, 2005). However, at least superficially, social work interventions appear to contrast with section 17 responses, where research reveals high levels of satisfaction amongst parents and children receiving social work services (Colton et al., 1995; Tunstill and Aldg ate, 2000). Thus, if allegations were minor, it was suggested that the costs to families were unacceptably high, and it was by no means clear that interventions, as a social work response, was better or worse than other options. Engaging in social welfare policy addresses low socio-economic status through intervention aimed at promoting social change, while intervention aimed at the poor family or individual addresses poverty at the micro level by helping those in need to develop better coping strategies. The argument that the social work mission of pursuing social change and dealing with poverty cannot be attained by micro practice has been the source of strong and recurrent criticism against the dominance of micro practice in social work although Hugman (2008) questions the truism of this argument (Asquith et al 2005). The relationship between the mission of social work with regard to poverty and the type of social work practised poses a dilemma for social workers. A particular challenge for social work services is how to work to the required standards regarding thresholds for assessment and intervention with West African families with low socio-economic background and to safeguard and promote childrens we lfare (Platt, 2005). Poverty And Parenting Practices The literature suggest that poverty among black West African families affect the life chances of many African children and the capacity of their parents to provide adequate care and this should be considered in social work assessment and interventions involving child abuse cases. The relationship between values and child up bringing patterns illuminates the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours (Shor, 2000). Shor (2000) suggests that parents from low social class differ in terms of the values they uphold for their children and this impact on child upbringing. It is also found that there is correlation between black African mothers with low income status using a more authoritarian approach of caring for children than mothers with high income status. Shors (2000) underpin the relationship between values and child-bearing patterns which illuminate the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours. He suggests that parents from divers e social class differ in terms of what characteristics they value most for their children and that these differences in value contribute to differences in parenting behaviour. This variation in child-rearing attitudes based on socio-economic variables was underpinned by Shaefer and Edgerton (1995). In order to develop a sensitive knowledge of child abuse, not only across culture but also across socio-economic contexts, it is possible to draw upon knowledge from studies that look at the parenting patterns of black parents with low income. In families it is the children to whom social workers owe the greater duty of care. Children can be clear about what they need. There may be tensions between childrens needs and wishes, parents needs and wishes, the views and wishes of the wider family, of the community, other professionals, and with the requirements of the law, regulation and procedure. Even where the decision is to remove a child from a family the way social workers conduct their business can make a difference. Thus social work has to respond to parental needs- financial and social, for the sake of the children, but may need to abandon them to maintain the primacy of the childs welfare. The consequences of getting the balance wrong in either direction expose both black African children and parents to suffering and pain. Sometimes the nature of the socio-economic issue will demand decisions that appear to undermine that commitment of not putting children at risk of significant harm. Social workers have to take the decision and maintain the commitment. The Government Regulatory Policies And Poverty By the 21st century, there was a growing view that many West African children who were subjects of section 47 investigations were also eligible for services as children in need (section 17 of the 1989 Children Act). Often, such children did not receive these welfare services because of the apparent incident driven focus of child protection services. One way forward in these circumstances was to encourage local authority social work teams to conduct initial assessments, rather than child protection investigations, in borderline cases, with a view to finding less intrusive forms of social work intervention practice that address the wider developmental needs of the child. Procedures supporting such changes were first introduced by local authorities independently, and were subsequently incorporated into government guidance in England, with the expectation that all referrals of children would first be offered an initial assessment except in emergency cases or where it is suspected that a crime has been committed (Department of Health, 1999). Concurrently, a detailed framework was issued regarding the assessment of all children in need (Department of Health, 2000). The now familiar Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families was based on an ecological model of assessment, and included supporting pro formas covering the initial assessment period. Platt, (2000) in his study on refocusing initiative attracted a degree of criticism. For many health and social work professionals, there was concern that serious child protection issues might not receive an adequate response if handled outside child protection procedures (Calder and Hackett, 2003). A key factor here would be whether cases can be switched successfully from family support back into child protection—an issue that has given cause for concern over a number of years (Laming, 2003). Parton (1996) criticized the recommendations of Messages from Research because they ignored the basic socio-economic reality for many families. Furthermore, cu rrent social expectations may support a formal response to allegations of child abuse and neglect. It is thus unreasonable to expect social workers to act alone since to do so runs counter to the dominant view of wider society. The idea that fewer investigations would mean that resources could simply be transferred to family support services is somewhat naive. The resource problems include the provision of social work time, the provision of adequate family support services, and the need to support a period of change and transition. Few would argue that resourcing levels in any of these respects have been adequate (Calder and Hackett, 2003), and the question of resources was sidestepped almost completely by Messages from Research. The difficulties of implementing such changes were highlighted more recently by Cleaver and Walker (2004) in their research on the impact of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. The role of the state in these processes was also examined critically by Spratt and Callan (2004). They argued that reductions in numbers of children on the child protection register have been achieved largely as a result of modern governance and measures to promote compliance with performance targets. Whilst these achievements are laudable, they suggest, they may serve to obscure ‘underlying tensions in the relationship between the state and the family. The idea of refocusing has been affected by complex, often competing pressures since the introduction of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. Arguably, the death of Victoria Climbià © reinforced a ‘child protection orientation, and may have led, in some areas, to a lowering of the child protection threshold (Laming, 2003). The Laming report, furthermore, draws attention to the professional confusions that arise from the distinctions in practice between sections 17 and 47. In circumstances such as this, the role of the social worker in any changing pattern of provision takes on parti cular importance. Chapter Three Social Work Practices History Of Social Work Practice Social work has its roots in the struggle of society to deal with poverty and the resultant problems. Therefore, social work is intricately linked with the idea of charity work; but must be understood in broader terms. The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions (www.globalvision.org. Retrieved on 14/04/2009). The term social work intervention usually describes work undertaken with individuals, families, groups and communities. In this context the term to cover the use of social work knowledge and skills when using it within a social care organisation to facilitate the provision of services and practice consistent with the Codes of Practice and with standards of service and practice, and to promote the social inclusion and life opportunities of people using services. Successful social work includes the capacity to work effectively within organisations and across organisational boundaries. In the vast majority of instances social work intervention is a collective activity not an individual activity whether as social worker employee or an independent social worker. The most common form of methods of social work intervention is Individual or family casework. Here social work is the intervention. It supports the individual or family to identify, and use, their own and their social networks exp erience and expertise as a resource for problems or difficulties may have resulte Child Abuse Interventions Within Black African Families Child Abuse Interventions Within Black African Families Introduction Child abuse within Black African families is an important topic which has been given extensive attention in British social work research and literature to date. However, only a limited research on child abuse in African families have really considered the impact of socio-economic factors on social work interventions since the inception of the Children Act 1989 (England and Wales). Now the question is why is the issue of socio-economic status of West African families living in the UK an important factor to consider in social work intervention in child abuse cases? My aim in addressing this topic is that research works and literature show that Black children and their families are more likely than whites to be subjected to unnecessary child abuse interventions by social work agencies and other professionals (Bernard Gupta, 2006). Recent research show that in all groups, black children were over-represented on the child protection register under the category of poor parenting behaviour leading to all forms of abuse compared to white children (Bernard Gupta, 2006). This may also be seen within the context of the pathologization of Black families which, incorporates the view that black people, their socio-economic lifestyles are inherently problematic and need correcting (Singh 2006, p. 19) and therefore social workers may intervene unnecessarily in such families. Social workers on the contrary may hesitate to intervene with Black families due to being unsure whether certain parenting behaviours resulting from low socio-economic status are really an abuse or not. The potential consequences of such approach for Black families will be either that the children and their families will be unnecessarily investigated under the child protection system and may be subject to court orders, admitted to local authority care, and/or adopted, or that there will not be appropriate intervention by social workers for black children at risk of significant harm, and therefore children may continue to be harmed or even die. This is evident in recent years, where the vulnerability of some black African children in Britain has been highlighted by the tragic deaths of two African children: Victoria Climbià © (Laming, 2003) and the young boy known as Adam, whose torso was found floating in the River Thames (Sale, 2005). Also more recently, media reports of possible ‘ritual abuse of African children in Britain were fuelled by the criminal prosecution in relation to Child ‘B, who was physically abused because it was believed she was a ‘kindoki a victim of witchcraft possessed by the devil (Tendler and Woolcock, 2005; Thompson, 2005). In a broader context Socio-economic status is defined as: ‘a composite measure that typically incorporate economic status, which is measured by income; social status, measured by education; and work status, measured by occupation (Dulton Levine, 1989, p.30). The three indicators are interrelated but not fully overlapping variables. In this context socio-economic status is considered in terms of economic status, defined as low income or poverty. The difficulties for majority of West African Black families who are mainly asylum seekers from poverty-stricken and war-torn countries now living in the UK are not confined only to how they may be viewed by social workers involved in child care but significantly by their child-rearing differences arising from their socio-economic backgrounds (Beranard Gupta 2006). The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (Department of Health, 2000) based on the ecological approach places a requirement on social workers to consider families histories, cultural and socio-economic status. Therefore the low socio-economic status of many West African families living in the UK is one big challenge for social work professionals working to safeguard and protect these children from abuse from parents responsible for their care. Therefore key information from the literature will be discussed to explore a number of issues that will help social work professionals to deploy the most appropriate and effective method of social work interventions in child abuse cases with West African families in poverty so as to protect these children from all forms of abuse. Moreover, difficulties in social work intervention in child abuse cases may arise, as explained by Korbin (2004), because the process of assessing a child abuse case is complex and parent al behaviours and child outcomes may not be the same in different socio-economic settings. Henceforth, child abuse within West African families can risk reproducing stereotypes of this ethnic minority as ‘deficient, thus fostering pathological viewpoint of African family relationships (Platt, 2005). This raises the question of how can social work practices direct attention to pertinent socio-economic issues framing the experiences of West African children at risk of significant harm, yet not to reproduce ideas of all West African families as deficient. These complex circumstances make social work intervention a major challenge in recent times and therefore, calls for a new perspective in terms of skills, knowledge and conceptual tools to distinguish between the styles of parenting that differ from those of the majority culture, but at the same time safeguarding and protecting children from significant harm. The dissertation has built its theoretical framework on social work theory, policy and practice and will use key conceptual framework from the social-contextual approaches to intervention. The methodology for this work was mainly qualitative and the literature search has been obtained from primary and secondary sources. The dissertation will lay out various issues regarding the social work intervention processes used for West African families with low socio-economic status. The first chapter provides literature on black African children and the child protection system. Chapter two provides a discussion on the increased complexity of social work intervention in child abuse cases involving West African families with low socio-economic status. It also analyse how socio-economic factors cultivate a particular parenting behaviours that impact on social work interventions and thus, bringing West African children living in the UK into the child protection arena. Then chapter three draws on legislations and policies regulating social work practices in the UK. It examines social work practices required to provide competent social work interventions in child abuse cases among West African families and at the same time would not compromise children safety and protection. Chapter four critically analyse the methods of interventions available to social workers to use in effecting positive change in black African community. Finally chapter five discusses the implicat ions of social work intervention made by social work professionals among West African families of low socio-economic status. Chapter one Black African Children And Child Protection Systems The Prevalence Of Black Children On Child Protection Systems There are a number of recent studies on Black families and the child protection system which suggest that these families are disproportionately represented at different levels in the child protection system. Gibbons et al (2005) study looked at the operation of the child protection system in eight local authorities in Britain. A part of their study looked at the racial background of the referred families and they found that Black families were over-represented compared with White families on referrals involving physical injury (58% vs. 42%). Black families were also more often referred for using an implement to inflict the physical injury. The researchers argue that this finding illustrates parenting differences in child-rearing, and the difficulty of deciding what forms of physical punishments are ‘acceptable in Britain. They continued to report that the consequences of the injuries inflicted on the Black children were no more likely to be long-lasting, but what seemed unaccep table for the people who referred these children to social services was the form the punishment took. This research study raises an interesting point about child-rearing and parenting differences. Is it the case that Black families, as part of their culture of child-rearing stemming from their poverty status, use physical punishment more as a means of discipline than White families? A recent study by Ellis (2007) found that some West African parents adopted a harsh disciplinary approach with their children as they believe there is no other alternative way of instilling discipline in their children. But the vast people of the majority ethnic community could use options like keeping playing toys away from the children or not taking the children on a holiday and/or depriving them of visiting their friends as a form of instilling disciplining in the children. Ellis (2007) also noted that these punishments are likely to be meted out in a fairly public situation and, though they may be painful, they are unlikely to get out of hand and go beyond what is culturally acceptable. This would appear to support Gibbon et al (2005) findings that the consequences of the injuries to the Black children in their study were not likely to be long-lasting. Another research study by Gibbon Wilding (2005) looked at three local authorities, two of which had significant populations of Black families. One of their findings indicate that referrals around inadequate supervision of children in the two authorities show that a significant number of children referrals came from Black families with low income status than black families with medium/high income status. It could be argued that families with low income status have to strive hard to make ends means by engaging in two or more menial jobs to financially sustain the family. As a result children are inadequately supervised by the very people who are responsible for their care. Considering this kind of socio-economic circumstances, Gibbon Wilding (2005) question whether such referrals should be considered within the child protection framework, or whether it would be better to provide welfare interventions and services for such families under the children in need Act (The Children Act 1989 , England and Wales, S.17). This finding has a number of possible implications for West African children and their families, it may mean that they will remain in the child protection system for longer whilst the necessary services are identified and implemented; or perhaps that assessments and intervention services are provided but are not socio-economically sensitive, and therefore only serve to disadvantage families further. Furthermore, as part of their study, they found that proportionately more Black children were subject to child abuse investigations than White children. They found that of all the children in their study sample on the register, 60% were Black. A possible reason for this over-representation was that social work professionals working with the families had no or little understanding of the socio-economic backgrounds of these black African families (Barn et al. 2007). The researchers also found that White social workers and practitioners emphasized their lack of socio-economic awareness as a weakness when working with Black families, whilst Black social workers and practitioners argued that poverty and ethnicity were not adequately taken into account due to euro-centric child protection procedures. One might speculate whether the parents/guardians of these children refuse to cooperate with social service agencies or whether these agencies are taking a heavy-handed approach, perhaps have pathological approach towards such families. Further data shows that the number of African children in need in the sample week in 2005 is 8,000 (Department for Education and Skills, 2006a). This figure accounts for 3 per cent of the overall total, which is an over-representation inferring from the 2001 census where African children makes up 1.4 per cent of the population. A number of studies indicate that most families of children in need, regardless of ethnicity, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of poverty (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). Many West African children in need will not be drawn into the child protection system, if they are made to receive voluntary welfare support services. Thoburn et al.s (2005) review of the research into the nature and outcomes of child welfare services for black children concluded that African children are almost twice as likely to be looked after than the white majority children in the population as a whole, which then suggest, that some of these children will be accommoda ted under section 20 of the 1989 Children Act, by virtue of being raised by families of low socio-economic status. Beranard and Gupta (2006) found that in relation to the reasons for African children being involved in the child protection system, no official national data are collected on ethnicity and reasons for referral or registration on the child protection register (Department for Education and Skills, 2006b). Research data paint a complex and often contradictory picture and once again the information is often aggregated with data on other minority ethnic children. Brophy et al.s (2003) study, which separated data on different minority ethnic families, highlights an increase complexity in the cases involving African children and found that many involved ‘multiple concerns and allegations about parental behaviour. Arguably, there are a number of contributory factors which could be perceived as important in understanding the involvement of West African families with social work agencies and the resultant over-representation of their children in public care and in the child protection system. Broadly speaking, these range from poverty and social exclusion, to child abuse and neglect, poor social work assessments and intervention, and overt and covert racism. The Government Policies And Initiatives The Commission for Racial Equalitys submission to the DFES/HM Treasury Joint Policy Review on children and young people identifies a number of shortcomings of some government policy initiatives such as Sure Start (CRE, 2006). As is the case with many other government policy initiatives, it is expected that Sure Start Centres will be responsive to black minority ethnic needs and concerns. The commitment of such policies is questioned when there is ‘no race equality impact assessment of the Childcare Act 2006 and only a brief mention of black ethnic minority families in the ten-year childcare strategy (CRE, 2006, p. 10). Whilst black ethnic monitoring of children in care, in need and on the child protection register now takes place at regional and national levels, there is little evidence that such information is utilized for policy and planning purposes to effect positive change. It is evident that race and welfare policy has been constrained by parochial perspectives which have tended to focus on how to deal with those in the system. For example, the policy and practice debate on ethnicity and substitute family placements diverts attention from preventive services which could help to obviate the admission of minority children into care in the first place. Similarly, preventive methods of intervention with West African families, such as Family Group Conferences, and systemic practice, as well as particular approaches such as kinship care, are less well developed (Broad and Skinner, 2005; Farmer and Moyers, 2005). Chapter Two Poverty, West African Families And Child Proctection Poverty And Child Protection All families and children for whom social work intervention is likely to be needed are also more than most subject to a range of social and economic problems and barriers. One major factor is chronic poverty which is often associated with unemployment or immigration, ethnic minority, or a single parent family. Poverty often goes hand in hand with other disadvantages and obstacles such as poor educational and employment opportunities, poor parenting, and allegations of child abuse cases. Many West African families and children problems are exacerbated by the interaction between socio-economic factors and their individual impairments and family situations. Unemployment levels are very high among West African families, who are also subject to stigma and prejudice on the part of the community. West African families living in the UK without jobs and no access to benefit and/or dependent on benefits find it hard to access credit. Poor children growing up in single-parent families suffer se rious parental disadvantage, which in turn result into social work interventions. Poverty as we all know is not even-handed. The chances of experiencing poverty are far higher with people from West Africa than with white people (Amin Oppenheim 2002). Institutional oppression is suffered by many West African people in many areas including housing ( Amin Oppenheim 2002), employment ( Chakrabarti et al. 2000), welfare state ( Sadiq-Sangster 2001), education and health which not only means that they are more likely to experience poverty and deprivation, but may also make them more susceptible to social work interventions in terms of child protection. Indeed one may expect Black children to be over-represented in child abuse statistics because their families are more open to surveillance as a result of figuring highly among indices of deprivation (Corby 1993, p.69). The relationship between poverty and child abuse has been broadly established (Thobum et al. 1993; Gibbons et al. 2005). Arguments favour the impact of poverty on child abuse shows an increasing number of child protection allegations referred into the system, and second was the proportion of cases leading to social work interventions and/or other forms of services. Numbers entering the system were hard to quantify. Whilst they showed an increase in registrations up to 1991 (Gibbons et al., 1995), no national records had been kept about referrals, and differences in recording practices and interpretation were widespread. Regarding proportional figures, the discussion was on slightly safer ground. A key finding from the 2005 research studies show that a large number of children were entered into the child protection system compared with those who were subject to social welfare procedures. Of a total number of child protection referrals, around 75 per cent were investigated and intervened, 25 per cent were subject to a child protection conference and only 15 per cent had their names placed on the child pr otection register as a result (Gibbons et al., 2005). Consequently, it was argued that the child protection ‘net was picking up too many cases inappropriately. This finding undermines the government aim of keeping children with families and reducing the number of children that enter the child protection register. On the contrast, it is important to consider the effectiveness of the child protection system. Broadly, it seemed to be achieving as much as could be expected in terms of the limited aim of preventing further abuse to identifiable children. There are, however, identifiable shortcomings of the child protection system. Social work interventions appeared to have quite traumatic effects on families (Department of Health, 1995), often generating anxiety and uncertainty for either children or parents, or both (Farmer and Owen, 2005). Poverty And Child Welfare Services Research shows that the poverty experienced by many West African families may be better met through preventative measures rather than child protection ones. Yet despite section 17 of the Children Act 1989, which places a duty on the local authority social workers to provide support for children in need, many social services children and family teams, barely have sufficient resources to meet their duties under child welfare and children looked after. However, unless these issues are tackled, West African families who need support for their children will receive it only when there is an issue of child protection. Furthermore, using socio-economic variables such as poverty as a predictor of high-risk families (Greenland 1997) fails to acknowledge the part prejudice plays for Black people. Consequently, these indicators of child abuse are seen as failings of the individual rather than the product of social inequality (Jones 2004). A number of studies have indicated that most West African families, struggle to bring up their children in conditions of material and emotional adversity (Department of Health, 1995, 2001). For instance West African families cannot take their children on a holiday trip or meet their wishes and wants. Brophy et al.s (2003) study suggests that immigration and asylum issues, combined with financial problems, are likely to be reasons for the increased complexity for social work professionals assessing and intervening child abuse cases involving West African children. The child protection system that exists in Britain will be unfamiliar to many West African families, especially those who recently arrived, as similar state systems do not exist in most West African countries, particularly where socio-economic factors overshadow intra-familial child maltreatment and intervention into child abuse and neglect (Lachman et al., 2002; Pierce and Bozalek, 2004). Brophy et al.s (2003) study conclud es that many black West African parents saw social work assessment and intervention in child welfare cases as a complete anathema and distrust, especially where parents migrate from countries in political turmoil and where there is no existence of child welfare services. There is also concern about the quality of social workers interventions in child abuse cases. For example, it is shown that investigations of alleged child abuse tended to focus on risk assessment rather than assessment leading to social work interventions of the needs of the whole child (Thoburn et al., 2007). In particular, social workers carrying out an investigation might not pick up problems emanating from poverty or social deprivation (Farmer and Owen, 2005). However, at least superficially, social work interventions appear to contrast with section 17 responses, where research reveals high levels of satisfaction amongst parents and children receiving social work services (Colton et al., 1995; Tunstill and Aldg ate, 2000). Thus, if allegations were minor, it was suggested that the costs to families were unacceptably high, and it was by no means clear that interventions, as a social work response, was better or worse than other options. Engaging in social welfare policy addresses low socio-economic status through intervention aimed at promoting social change, while intervention aimed at the poor family or individual addresses poverty at the micro level by helping those in need to develop better coping strategies. The argument that the social work mission of pursuing social change and dealing with poverty cannot be attained by micro practice has been the source of strong and recurrent criticism against the dominance of micro practice in social work although Hugman (2008) questions the truism of this argument (Asquith et al 2005). The relationship between the mission of social work with regard to poverty and the type of social work practised poses a dilemma for social workers. A particular challenge for social work services is how to work to the required standards regarding thresholds for assessment and intervention with West African families with low socio-economic background and to safeguard and promote childrens we lfare (Platt, 2005). Poverty And Parenting Practices The literature suggest that poverty among black West African families affect the life chances of many African children and the capacity of their parents to provide adequate care and this should be considered in social work assessment and interventions involving child abuse cases. The relationship between values and child up bringing patterns illuminates the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours (Shor, 2000). Shor (2000) suggests that parents from low social class differ in terms of the values they uphold for their children and this impact on child upbringing. It is also found that there is correlation between black African mothers with low income status using a more authoritarian approach of caring for children than mothers with high income status. Shors (2000) underpin the relationship between values and child-bearing patterns which illuminate the relationship between socio-economic factors and parenting behaviours. He suggests that parents from divers e social class differ in terms of what characteristics they value most for their children and that these differences in value contribute to differences in parenting behaviour. This variation in child-rearing attitudes based on socio-economic variables was underpinned by Shaefer and Edgerton (1995). In order to develop a sensitive knowledge of child abuse, not only across culture but also across socio-economic contexts, it is possible to draw upon knowledge from studies that look at the parenting patterns of black parents with low income. In families it is the children to whom social workers owe the greater duty of care. Children can be clear about what they need. There may be tensions between childrens needs and wishes, parents needs and wishes, the views and wishes of the wider family, of the community, other professionals, and with the requirements of the law, regulation and procedure. Even where the decision is to remove a child from a family the way social workers conduct their business can make a difference. Thus social work has to respond to parental needs- financial and social, for the sake of the children, but may need to abandon them to maintain the primacy of the childs welfare. The consequences of getting the balance wrong in either direction expose both black African children and parents to suffering and pain. Sometimes the nature of the socio-economic issue will demand decisions that appear to undermine that commitment of not putting children at risk of significant harm. Social workers have to take the decision and maintain the commitment. The Government Regulatory Policies And Poverty By the 21st century, there was a growing view that many West African children who were subjects of section 47 investigations were also eligible for services as children in need (section 17 of the 1989 Children Act). Often, such children did not receive these welfare services because of the apparent incident driven focus of child protection services. One way forward in these circumstances was to encourage local authority social work teams to conduct initial assessments, rather than child protection investigations, in borderline cases, with a view to finding less intrusive forms of social work intervention practice that address the wider developmental needs of the child. Procedures supporting such changes were first introduced by local authorities independently, and were subsequently incorporated into government guidance in England, with the expectation that all referrals of children would first be offered an initial assessment except in emergency cases or where it is suspected that a crime has been committed (Department of Health, 1999). Concurrently, a detailed framework was issued regarding the assessment of all children in need (Department of Health, 2000). The now familiar Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families was based on an ecological model of assessment, and included supporting pro formas covering the initial assessment period. Platt, (2000) in his study on refocusing initiative attracted a degree of criticism. For many health and social work professionals, there was concern that serious child protection issues might not receive an adequate response if handled outside child protection procedures (Calder and Hackett, 2003). A key factor here would be whether cases can be switched successfully from family support back into child protection—an issue that has given cause for concern over a number of years (Laming, 2003). Parton (1996) criticized the recommendations of Messages from Research because they ignored the basic socio-economic reality for many families. Furthermore, cu rrent social expectations may support a formal response to allegations of child abuse and neglect. It is thus unreasonable to expect social workers to act alone since to do so runs counter to the dominant view of wider society. The idea that fewer investigations would mean that resources could simply be transferred to family support services is somewhat naive. The resource problems include the provision of social work time, the provision of adequate family support services, and the need to support a period of change and transition. Few would argue that resourcing levels in any of these respects have been adequate (Calder and Hackett, 2003), and the question of resources was sidestepped almost completely by Messages from Research. The difficulties of implementing such changes were highlighted more recently by Cleaver and Walker (2004) in their research on the impact of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. The role of the state in these processes was also examined critically by Spratt and Callan (2004). They argued that reductions in numbers of children on the child protection register have been achieved largely as a result of modern governance and measures to promote compliance with performance targets. Whilst these achievements are laudable, they suggest, they may serve to obscure ‘underlying tensions in the relationship between the state and the family. The idea of refocusing has been affected by complex, often competing pressures since the introduction of the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families. Arguably, the death of Victoria Climbià © reinforced a ‘child protection orientation, and may have led, in some areas, to a lowering of the child protection threshold (Laming, 2003). The Laming report, furthermore, draws attention to the professional confusions that arise from the distinctions in practice between sections 17 and 47. In circumstances such as this, the role of the social worker in any changing pattern of provision takes on parti cular importance. Chapter Three Social Work Practices History Of Social Work Practice Social work has its roots in the struggle of society to deal with poverty and the resultant problems. Therefore, social work is intricately linked with the idea of charity work; but must be understood in broader terms. The concept of charity goes back to ancient times, and the practice of providing for the poor has roots in all major world religions (www.globalvision.org. Retrieved on 14/04/2009). The term social work intervention usually describes work undertaken with individuals, families, groups and communities. In this context the term to cover the use of social work knowledge and skills when using it within a social care organisation to facilitate the provision of services and practice consistent with the Codes of Practice and with standards of service and practice, and to promote the social inclusion and life opportunities of people using services. Successful social work includes the capacity to work effectively within organisations and across organisational boundaries. In the vast majority of instances social work intervention is a collective activity not an individual activity whether as social worker employee or an independent social worker. The most common form of methods of social work intervention is Individual or family casework. Here social work is the intervention. It supports the individual or family to identify, and use, their own and their social networks exp erience and expertise as a resource for problems or difficulties may have resulte